... these actions: Bile salts increase the solubility of cholesterol, fats, and fat-soluble vitamins to aid in their absorption. Bile salts stimulate the secretion of water by the large intestine to help move the contents along. Bilirubin (the ...

Salting the soils, surface and subsurface waters is widespread in Transbaikalia. Hearths of salting occur within intermountain depressions of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic age both in the steppe arid and forest humid landscapes. Total water mineralization reaches 80 g/dm3 in lakes and 4-5 g/dm3 in subsurface waters. The waters belong to hydrocarbonate sodium and sulfate sodium types by chemical composition. The soda type of waters is widely spread through the whole area. Sulfate waters are found in several hearths of salting. Deposition of salts takes place in some lakes. Mirabilite and soda depositions are most commonly observed in muds of salt lakes. Deposition of salts occurs both as a result of evaporative concentrating and during freezing out the solvent. In the winter period, efflorescences of salts, where decawater soda is main mineral, are observed on ice surface. Solonchaks are spread in areas of shallow ground waters (1-2m). Soil salting is most intense in the lower parts of depressions, where surface of ground waters is at depth 0.5-1.0m. In soil cover of solonchaks, salt horizon is of various thicknesses, and it has various morphological forms of occurrence, i.e. as thick deposits of salts on soil surface and salting the surficial horizons. The soil has low alkaline reaction of medium and is characterized by high content of exchangeable bases with significant content of exchangeable sodium in the absorbing complex. Total amount of salts varies from 0.7 to 1.3%. Their maximal quantity (3.1%) is confined to the surficial layer. Sulfate-sodium type of salting is noted in the solonchak upper horizons and sulfate-magnesium-calcium one in the lower ones (Ubugunov et al, 2009). Formation of salting hearths is associated with natural and technogenic conditions. The Mesozoic depressions of Transbaikalia are characterized by intense volcanism. Covers of alkaline and moderately alkaline basalts that are enriched in potassium, sodium, carbon dioxide, fluorine, chlorine, sulphur, strontium, lithium, molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium are widely spread there. Geochemical habit of basalts largely determines chemical compositions of waters and mineral formations in hearths of salting. Unloading the fissure-vein waters that evacuate solute from the Jurassic-Cretaceous volcanogenic-sedimentary deposits greatly effects chemical composition in some hearths of salting. Irrigation systems in many intermountain depressions influence the salting hearth formation. The associated secondary salting occurs as spots in the areas, where ground water surface reaches foot of loams during irrigation. Salting the landscapes takes out big areas of fertile lands from agricultural use, threatens with breakdowns at enterprises of thermal energetic that consume water as heat carrier.

The partial replacement of sodium chloride by other salts has been proposed as a possible strategy to reduce the sodium content of cured meat products. Nevertheless, there is very little knowledge as regards the influence of salts other than sodium chloride on salting kinetics. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect brought about by substituting sodium chloride with potassium, calcium and magnesium chloride on the salting kinetics of dry cured loins. The results showed very important changes in the salting pattern depending on the type of salts. Partial substitution of sodium affected both water and ion transport during the salting process. The presence of KCl decreased water loss while CaCl2 and MgCl2 had the opposite effect. However, replacement of up to 50% NaCl by KCl had no ...

An efficient and low cost method is required to improve the saline soils. Soil slaking has long been studied from the stand point of stability of aggregates. However, it has not been studied from that of salt removal. The objective of this study is to examine the contribution of slaking to desalinization of soil accompanied by land drying practice. A slaking test was carried out for evaluating the efficiency of slaking and their impacts on salt removal of salinized soil under various water contents. We prepared natural/virgin and air-dried soils to give different intensity of pre-drying. Those soils were resaturated (for air-dry soil) and well-mixed, then dried to different moisture contents (60, 50, 40, 30, 20 and 10% by weight). After 24 hours immersion in water, the soils never slaked at 60 and 50% moisture contents in natural soil whereas 88-89% of the specimens were slaked in air-dry soil under the same moisture contents. The slaking rate was highest under 30% moisture contents in natural soil. In air-dry soil 30 and 20% showed the higher slaking rate in compared to other water contents. The proportion of salt released into equilibrated water after 24 hours immersion was also high at the same water contents. Since the natural soil did not slake until 40%, drying below 30% moisture content will be effective for the removal of salt from these soils.

Salt hydrates undergo desorption on being heated above certain charging temperatures, releasing water and forming anhydrous salts which have a higher energy content. Since these salts are hygroscopic, energy is easily retrieved back by passing water vapor over the anhydrous form. Such a technique of energy conversion, storage and retrieval enables these salts to be impregnated into porous media for thermo-chemical energy application. However, to investigate the thermal transport at the interface of the porous material and the salt, atomistic simulations are necessary. We employ molecular dynamics to simulate the heat transfer mechanism in a flow of hydrated magnesium sulfate impregnated into mesoporous silica and understand the role of interfacial thermal resistance on the charging temperature and total heat storage capacity of such salts.

Solar refrigeration is the best method of utilization of solar energy due to the in-phase relationship between the availability of the solar radiation and the refrigeration requirements. Zeolites with their water content and ion-exchange capability can be used as the material for solar refrigeration. This study aims at further enhancement in the adsorption refrigeration capacity of zeolite by salt hydrate encapsulation. Ion-exchanged and salt hydrate encapsulated zeolites are prepared and characterized for their application as potential candidates in solar refrigeration. A sorption machine has been constructed with the salt-encapsulated zeolite and the results highlight the enhanced suitability of the salt-encapsulated zeolites for solar refrigeration. (author)

Abstract Soil salinity and waterlogging are two major environmental problems in estuarine wetlands. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of salt stress, water table, and their combination on growth, chlorophyll content, antioxidant system, and ion accumulation in Suaeda salsa plant, which is the pioneer plant in coastal wetland of the Yellow River Delta (YRD). The results showed that plant height, number of branches, and biomass were significantly affected by water table and salt stress. With enhanced salt stress, the ratio of leaf to total biomass increased and the ratio of root to total biomass decreased. The contents of Chl-a, -b, Chl-a-+-b, and carotenoids (Car) decreased significantly with increasing soil salinity and the water table level. Salt stress enhanced t...

Soils in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica contain ice and considerable amounts of salt. Ice often occurs at shallow depth throughout the dry valleys and other areas of hyperarid permafrost, notably on Mars. This common occurrence of shallow ice is enigmatic; however, since according to published sublimation models it should disappear relatively quickly (at rates of order 0.1 mm a-1) due to vapor loss to the atmosphere. The disagreement between the occurrence of ice on one hand and process-based vapor transport models on other hand suggests that processes in addition to vapor transport have influence on ice stability. From a number of possible processes, infiltration of snowmelt during summer month and vapor trapping due to overlaying snow cover in winter have been discussed in more detail and both processes are likely to slow down ice sublimation. At this point, however, there are only limited field-observations to confirm the presence of such processes. The present study aims to investigate the effect of water adsorption, salt hydration, and freezing point depression on water transport and ice stability. We hypothesize that hydration of salts and water adsorption on grain surfaces play an important role in the survival of ground ice and as water reservoir in these areas and should be taken into account when modeling vapor transport. Furthermore, there is evidence that salt content in ground ice is high enough to cause formation of brines at subfreezing temperatures that can lead to a growth of ground ice. To support our hypothesis we set up a field experiment by monitoring soil temperature, soil humidity, and soil moisture along with climate data and snow cover. In addition we collected soil samples to measure water potential, salt composition, ice content, and soil texture. Soil samples were extracted with water to measure soluble salt content along dry and ice rich soil profiles. In addition we measured soil moisture retention curves at different vapor concentrations on salt rich and salt free soil. The salt distribution along soil profiles strongly suggests that salts are transported into the dry as well as ice-rich soil by water films or brines causing a very characteristic element pattern. Moisture retention curves highlight the potential of salt as water reservoirs in these soils. They also indicate that hydration is a slow process compared to changes in atmospheric humidity as measured in the field. Therefore, salt-rich soil may buffer vapor transport more drastically as initially assumed. The ultimate goal of this study is to incorporate the effect of salts and surface adsorption into a water transport model for hyperarid soils.

A previous model of hydrothermal convection in the Martian subsurface (Travis, Rosenberg and Cuzzi, JGR-Planets, in press) indicates that background geothermal heat flux should lead to substantial thinning of the permafrost layer above upwelling convection plumes. That model assumes pure water properties. However, subsurface liquid water is likely to have significant salt content. Salts generally depress the freezing point; e.g., a high salt (NaCl) content can depress water's freezing point by about 20 °C. Further, brine is denser than pure water. These two properties may modify the nature of the predicted hydrothermal circulation, in particular, the amount of thinning of permafrost above upwelling plumes. Two and three dimensional simulations comparing pure water and brine circulation patterns will be presented.

Dry fermented sausages are subjected to a drying process in which simultaneous water and salt diffusion takes place. In multicomponent diffusion, the diffusion of each species is influenced by the diffusion of other species. Thus, the description of the process by the generalized Stefan-Maxwell (GSM) equation is more rigorous than by the Fick equation. This work uses the GSM approach to model simultaneous water and salt diffusion in fermented pork sausages during drying. Experimentally measured profiles of salt and water content in 80mm in diameter and 500mm long sausages dried for up to 35days were compared with the simulation results where GSM diffusivities of salt and water in meat were the only fitted parameters. A satisfactory agreement was obtained. The obtained diffusivities were st...

A salt-washing process to produce gluten with improved rheological properties having reduced lipid content was developed, initially using sodium chloride and subsequently with ammonium chloride. In laboratory experiments, the lipid content in gluten was reduced from 6.6% in the gluten control (washed out from flour with water only) to 5.7%, 3.6% and 2.7% in gluten salt-washed with increasing concentrations of NaCl from 0.5%, 1% to 2%, respectively. This was accompanied by the increase in the maximum creep strain of the salt-washed gluten (i.e. better gluten quality) with the increase in NaCl concentration. The new salt-washing process also improved gluten colour with reductions in b values (yellowness) and increases in L values (whiteness). Salt-washed gluten using 0.5% NH4Cl was comparabl...

Crude oil spilled at sea is subjected to weathering. The main physical process of weathering are water-in-oil emulsification, evaporation, dispersion, dissolution and oil-sediment interaction. For medium to heavy oils, evaporation and dispersion are less important, and the onset of water-in-oil emulsion formation becomes the most important weathering process for spill response. Emulsification involves the incorporation of water droplets into the continuous oil phase. As such, it has a pronounced effect on the physical properties and characteristics of an oil, affecting its behaviour and ultimate fate. Emulsions formed from heavy oils contain higher proportions of asphaltenes and resins and may persist for long periods or indefinitely. This paper provided a direct comparison of stability for emulsions formed from crude oils with both fresh and salt water containing 20 or 33 per cent sodium chloride. Emulsions from 5 crude oil were compared. It was noted that oils that form emulsions in salt water will also form in fresh water, in the same stability class. Stable fresh water emulsions have lower values of the viscoelastic parameters, indicating decreased stability compared to stable salt water emulsions. The difference between stable and meso-stable emulsions formed from water of 20 and 33 per cent salinity was small, but meso-stable emulsions from fresh water could achieve higher levels of water content and have higher initial values of the viscoelastic parameters than with salt water. The nature of stabilizer deficiency determines the form of degraded meso-stable emulsions. It was concluded that since entrained water states are created by a different chemical-physical process or mixing mode, there is no difference in emulsions product due to the ionic content of salt water. However, wax content may be a contributor to the stabilization for entrained water states. 14 refs., 5 tabs., 6 figs.

The Small-Scale Seal Performance Tests, Series C, a set of in situ experiments conducted at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, are designed to evaluate the performance of various seal materials emplaced in large (0.9-m-diameter) boreholes. This report documents the results of fluid (brine) flow testing and water and clay content analyses performed on one emplaced seal comprised of 100% salt blocks and 50%/50% crushed salt/bentonite blocks and disassembled after nearly three years of brine injection testing. Results from the water content analyses of 212 samples taken from within this seal show uniform water content throughout the 50%/50% salt/bentonite blocks with saturations about 100%. Clay content analyses from the 100% salt endcaps of the seal show a background clay content of about 1% by weight uniformly distributed, with the exception of samples taken at the base of the seal at the borehole wall interface. These samples show clay contents up to 3% by weight, which suggests some bentonite may have migrated under pressure to that interface. Results of the brine-flow testing show that the permeability to brine for this seal was about 2 to 3 {times} 10{sup {minus}4} darcy (2 to 3 {times} 10{sup {minus}16} m{sup 2}).

The NH/sub 3/ content is regulated in methanol used in a process for scrubbing out sour gases from gaseous mixtures and/or for preventing ice formation prior to the scrubbing step. The methanol is freed, after the scrubbing step, respectively of absorbed gaseous components and/or water, and reused in the cycle as scrubbing liquid and/or for preventing ice formation. A strong acid is added to the methanol from water-soluble ammonium salts. Thereby, dissolved salts are formed which are removed together with water. Deleterious trace acids are also removed by an analogous treatment with a basic compound. The acid/base treatments are conducted in succession.

The hydrothermal gasification of wet biomass is a promising process to use biomass residues of high water content to produce burnable gases. Here ''green'' biomass can be converted without prior drying. Recently important improvements are accomplished, but still challenges in view of the technical application exists. One of the most important challenges is the handling of salts as natural ingredients of biomass. In this study, salts forming a second salt-rich aqueous phase (hydrothermal brine) are used to catch other salts, to avoid plugging of the reactor by formation of solids. The sodium salts studied, were successfully captured by the hydrothermal brine, which also influences the conversion of glucose as model compound for biomass.

Tamarix smyrnensis plants were exposed to Pb(NO3)2, with and without addition of salt into soil for 10weeks. Salt as NaCl was added to water for watering in concentrations 0.5% and 3%. Subsequently, lead uptake was quantified in leaves and roots of the plants by ICP-AES spectrometry. In addition, the influence of Pb on photosynthesis and other physiological parameters was also examined by means of biomass production and shoot length determination. Plant appearance was observed also. The influence of Pb presence in the soil on chlorophyll content was examined. In order to quantify the fate of Pb in the plant, metal excretion by salt glands was investigated as well. It was found that the roots were the main accumulation site of Pb in all plants under all treatments irrespective of salt conce...

Abstract Bananas (Musa sapientum, shum.) were dehydrated by immersion in ternary aqueous solutions of sucrose and sodium chloride with different concentrations and temperatures. The temperature (25-55C), sugar concentration (30-60%) and salt concentration (0-10%) of each run were set according to a central composite design. Bananas of the Prata variety were cut into cylindrical pieces of 1.8-cm in diameter and 10-cm in length. Analyses were conducted for moisture, sugar and salt contents. Moisture content was determined by gravimetry in a drying oven according to an Association of Official Analytical Chemists method. Sugar and salt contents were determined by using high-performance liquid chromatography and conductivity meter, respectively. The results showed that water loss (WL) increased...

Water transparency, depth, tides, temperature, and salt content data for the surface waters of Piaui River, Sergipe State, Brazil, were collected simultaneously with the recording of digital TM/LANDSAT satellite images in the visible, near, mid, and therm...

The effects of NaCl concentrations (0, 50, 100, 200 and 400 mM) on the growth parameters, dry matter production, water content, stomata number, mineral content and proline content of torpedograss (Panicum repens L.) were evaluated to elucidate the salt tolerance mechanism of the plant. The values of all the growth parameters of torpedograss decreased with increasing concentrations of NaCl. Water content in the plants decreased from 84.5 to 68.0% under a salt stress of 400 mM. The contents of Na+, K+ and Ca2+ in the plants increased with increasing salt concentrations at 28 days after treatment (DAT). Shoot dry matter production was negatively correlated with the increase of Na+ content in shoots at 14 (r = -0.95) and 28 DAT (r = -0.93). Proline content increased by 10 and 100 fold under the salt stress of 200 and 400 mM, respectively, compared to that in the control plants. Positive correlation was observed between the proline content and Na+ content in shoots at 14 (r = 0.82) and 28 DAT (r = 0.94). Although torpedograss survived under a 200 mM NaCl stress, the plants grown under a 400 mM NaCl stress accumulated a high level of Na+ in cells at the early stage, which was severely toxic and led to the plant death at 21 DAT. The present study indicated that torpedograss maintained an adequate water content (about 68%), and accumulated higher levels of K+, Ca2+ and proline for maintaining the ion balance and osmoregulatory activities in cells to survive under NaCl stress conditions.   

This study addresses the effect of ionic strength and type of ions on the structure and water content of polyelectrolyte multilayers. Polyelectrolyte multilayers of poly(sodium-4-styrene sulfonate) (PSS) and poly(diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) prepared at different NaF, NaCl and NaBr concentrations have been investigated by neutron reflectometry against vacuum, H(2)O and D(2)O. Both thickness and water content of the multilayers increase with increasing ionic strength and increasing ion size. Two types of water were identified, "void water" which fills the voids of the multilayers and does not contribute to swelling but to a change in scattering length density and "swelling water" which directly contributes to swelling of the multilayers. The amount of void water decreases with increasing salt concentration and anion radius while the amount of swelling water increases with salt concentration and anion radius. This is interpreted as a denser structure in the dry state and larger ability to swell in water (sponge) for multilayers prepared from high ionic strengths and/or salt solution of large anions. No exchange of hydration water or replacement of H by D was detected even after eight hours incubation time in water of opposing isotopic composition. PMID:21523268

Soil sodicity development is a process that depends nonlinearly on both salt concentration and composition of soil water. In particular in hot climates, soil water composition is subject to temporal variation due to dry-wet cycles. To investigate the effect of such cycles on soil salinity and sodicity, a simple root zone model is developed that accounts for annual salt accumulation and leaching periods. Cation exchange is simplified to considering only Ca/Na exchange, using the Gapon exchange equation. The resulting salt and Ca/Na-balances are solved for a series of dry/wet cycles with a standard numerical approach. Due to the nonlinearities in the Gapon equation, the fluctuations of soil salinity that may be induced, e.g. by fluctuating soil water content, affect sodicity development. Eve...

The injectability, filterability and stability, especially resistance to precipitation on contact with water containing relatively high content of boron salts such as borates, of an aqueous polysaccharide-containing fluid for use in viscous oil recovery operations is improved by prehydrating the polysaccharide in fresh water of low boron content followed by shearing for a period of time sufficient to provide desirable filtration properties following by dilution with field brine followed by a second shearing step prior to injecting the aqueous fluid into the formation.

Upward saline groundwater seepage is leading to surface water salinization of deep lying polders in the Netherlands. Identifying measures to reduce the salt content requires a thorough understanding and quantification of the dominant sources of water and salt on a daily basis. However, as in most ba...

Water can be present in nominally anhydrous minerals of peridotites in the form of hydrogen bonded to structural oxygen. Such water in the oceanic upper mantle could have a significant effect on its physical and chemical properties. However, the water content of the MORB source has been inferred indirectly from the compositions of basalts. Direct determinations on abyssal peridotites are scarce because they have been heavily hydrothermally altered. Here we present the first water analyses of minerals from spinel peridotite xenoliths of Salt Lake Crater, Oahu, Hawaii, which are exceptionally fresh. These peridotites are thought to represent fragments of the Pacific oceanic lithosphere that was refertilized by alkalic Hawaiian melts. A few have unradiogenic Os and radiogenic Hf isotopes and may be fragments of an ancient (2 Ga) depleted and recycled lithosphere. Water contents in olivine (Ol), orthopyroxene (Opx), and clinopyroxene (Cpx) were determined by FTIR spectrometry. Preliminary H_{2}O contents show ranges of 8-10 ppm for Ol, 151-277 ppm for Opx, and 337-603 ppm for Cpx. Reconstructed bulk rock H_{2}O contents range from 88-131 ppm overlapping estimates for the MORB source. Water contents between Ol minerals of the same xenolith are heterogeneous and individual OH infrared bands vary within a mineral with lower 3230 cm^{-1} and higher 3650-3400 cm^{-1} band heights from core to edge. This observation suggests disturbance of the hydrogen in Ol likely occurring during xenolith entrainment to the surface. Pyroxene water contents are higher than most water contents in pyroxenes from continental peridotite xenoliths and higher than those of abyssal peridotites. Cpx water contents decrease with increasing degree of depletion (e.g. increasing Fo in Ol and Cr# in spinel) consistent with an incompatible behavior of water. However Cpx water contents also show a positive correlation with LREE/HREE ratios and LREE concentrations consistent with refertilization. Opx water contents increase with increasing degree of depletion and decrease with LREE/HREE ratios which is inconsistent with the incompatible behavior of H. Calculated water contents of melts in equilibrium with Cpx or Opx range from 1.4 to 3.8 wt % which is higher than that of all Hawaiian lavas. Calculated melts in equilibrium with Cpx and Opx have variable but mostly high H_{2}O/Ce ratios (194 to 1146) consistent with those of rejuvenated stage lavas from Niihau and the South Arch volcanic field, but unlike the drier shield building stage tholeiites. Whether the high water contents recorded in Salt Lake Crater xenoliths were acquired before and/or during interaction of the oceanic lithosphere with the Hawaiian plume will be discussed.

The effects of salt concentrations (0-15.0%) and drying methods on the quality of dried milkfish were studied. The results showed that the levels of aerobic plate counts, total coliform, water activity, moisture contents, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVBN) and thiobarbituric acid (TBA) of the dried milkfish samples prepared with the same drying method decreased with increased salt concentrations. The samples prepared with the cold-air drying method had better quality in term of lower TVBN and TBA values than those of samples prepared with other drying methods. The histamine contents in all samples, except two, prepared with various salt concentrations by different drying methods were less than 1.9mg/100g. Two unsalted samples prepared with hot-air drying at 35degreeC and sun drying metho...

  Development of high strength water-soluble salt cores is required for manufacturing undercut shaped products by die casting. In this study, the strength of potassium chloride core composites reinforced by ceramic particles or whiskers was evaluated by the 4-point support bending test. Moreover, castability was examined by surface roughness observations and X-ray tests of internal solidification shrinkage.  As a result, it was found that the strength of salt cores can be enhanced by increasing the ceramic content. For potassium chloride with Al18B4O33 whisker, the examined strength (30 MPa) was about five times stronger than commonly used sand cores. On the other hand, there were surface folds on all specimens. In addition, internal shrinkage occurred in all specimens. The amount of shrinkage decreased with increasing ceramic content. However, excess ceramic content was found to cause high apparent viscosity, resulting in extremely low formability.   

Some rivers on the northern slope of the eastern Kunlun Mountains in the Qaidam Basin, China, show very high concentrations of boron and lithium. Correspondingly, the salt lakes fed by these rivers show an unusual enrichment of boron and lithium, and become an important economic resource. The origin of boron and lithium has long been debated. The aim of this study is to analyze the water chemistry and hydrogen and oxygen isotopic composition of river water to understand the unusual enrichment of boron and lithium in the salt lakes of the Qaidam Basin. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope data show that the source of river water in the winter and summer originates from the Kunlun Mountain ice and snow melt water, respectively. The water chemistry shows that boron and lithium contents are high but li...

Hydrogels, which have high modulus even with relatively high water content, were prepared by dissolving poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) with poly(styrene sulfonic acid) sodium salt (NaPSS) in an autoclave at elevated temperature and pressure, then dehydrating and swelling in water. The high modulus was mainly due to crosslinked structures formed by interpolymer complex not made of PVA crystallites. The contraction of blend gels, which are drawn and dried in the drawn state, is caused by contraction of oriented amorphous chains with absorption of water. The oriented amorphous chains are mainly fixed by the crosslink formed by the interpolymer complex not the PVA crystallites.   

Covalent bulk modification of multiwalled carbon nanotubes using Fast Violet B salt containing potential donor atoms towards mercury is described. The chemically modified CNTs were characterized by FTIR and XPS techniques. The aqueous colloidal solution of modified CNTs was used in the construction of electrochemical interface for the determination of mercury at picomolar level. The analytical utility of the proposed sensor has been validated by estimating the mercury content in real sample matrices like drinking water and industrial effluent samples.

The invention concerns mixtures, mainly containing finely divided coal, water and polyelectrolyte. The mixture is characterized by containing 22-45% water by weight, and 0.01 - 5% polyelectrolyte with a mena molecular weight less than 5 times 10/sup 6/ - and which consists of water soluble, substituted polyethylene with sulphonate or hydrogensulphonate groups, which again are totally or partly in the form of salts, to the extent of a total sulphur content of 3 - 25% by weight, when the acidic groups are present as free acids.

A 20-cm high column of MX-80 bentonite compacted at dry density 1.72g/cm^3 with an initial water content of 16% was submitted to heating and hydration by opposite ends for 496days (TH test). The temperature at the bottom of the column was set at 140^oC and on top at 30^oC, and deionised water was injected on top at a pressure of 0.01MPa. Upon dismantling, water content, dry density, mineralogy, specific surface area, cationic exchange capacity, content of exchangeable cations, and concentration of soluble salts and pH of aqueous extracts were determined in different positions along the bentonite column. In addition, the pore water composition was modelled with a geochemical software. The test tried to simulate the conditions of an engineered barrier in a deep geological repository for high...

The contribution of NaCl to the functional and rheological properties of Queso Fresco (QF) was investigated to provide the basis for developing a low-salt version of this cheese. QF was manufactured from pasteurized homogenized milk using a commercial procedure without starter cultures; up to 2.5% (w/w) NaCl was added to milled curds. Moisture, fat, and protein levels were unaffected by salt content; the pH in QF made with 0-1.0% NaCl decreased with storage. Water activity increased significantly over storage time, and was inversely proportional to NaCl content. Total colour change after heating, and chroma values of cheese heated at 232 degrees C for 5 min decreased as NaCl levels increased; chroma values before and after heating increased with storage time. Increasing NaCl content incre...

The so-called "Super Salt-Resistive Gel", i.e., poly(4-vinyl phenol) (P4VPh) hydrogel, of different water contents (H = 95-40%) was prepared by crosslinking with different amounts of ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (EGDGE). FT-IR spectroscopy was used to investigate the hydration and hydrogen bond (HB) properties of water in the gel samples. The OH stretching band around 3300 cm-1 was deconvoluted into four sub-bands. On the basis of the relative band area and the peak wave number, it was suggested that HB of water in the gel is most stabilized when the acidic proton of the phenol residue is intact, being free from the chemical crosslinking. Difference spectra for the water band obtained in the presence of salts suggested that only sulfate systems specifically affect polymer hydrations in...

Conditions are developed for obtaining extracellular biopolymers (EBP), water (W), salt-EDTA (SE) and salt-detergent (SD) extracts of Pseudomonas syringae pv. atrofaciens IMV K-1025. The fraction of unsoluble LPS is effectively precipitated from samples by ultracentrifugation (UC). The fractions enriched by proteins and soluble LPS are salted-out from the UC supernatants by ammonium sulphate, that is confirmed by the chemical analysis, electrophoresis in the PAAG-NDS and in ELISA with the monoclonal antibodies against the homologous LPS, a comparative analysis of electrophoretic spectra of UC supernatants of EBP, W and SE extracts has shown their great similarity in the composition rather than in the specific content of basic and minor polypeptides. Nine polypeptides of the major membrane of Pseudomonas syringae pv. atrofaciens IMV K-1025 having the molecular weights of 15.5, 30.0, 34.0, 36.0, 38.0, 41.0, 42.0, 43.0 and 65.0 kDa are identified as major ones. PMID:2368185

In this article, aiming at the elucidation of the effect of the degree of intensity of the salt water environment on the corrosion behavior under the paint film of Zn electroplated steel sheets and Zn-Fe electroplated steel sheets, a comparative study has been made on the corrosion behavior under film in the atmospheric exposure tests and the salt water sprinkling exposure tests, and at the same time, a study has been made on the relationship between the corrosion rate and the creepage width of the plated film in the state that corrosion products were generated. Part of its results is as follows; the effect of the degree of intensity of the salt water environment has been recognized in the composition range at or below 15%Fe, and regarding the creepage width within this composition range, it has shown an almost constant small value in the atmospheric exposure tests under the week salt water environment, but in the salt water sprinkling exposure tests under the strong salt water environment, a trend of increase has been shown as the Fe content ratio decreases. The creepage width in the composition range at or above 15%Fe has shown an increasing trend against the increase of the Fe content ratio in both the atmospheric exposure tests and the salt water sprinkling exposure tests, and the degree of intensity of the salt water environment does not affect the trend of the paint film creepage width in this range. 11 refs., 10 figs.

The waste is mixed in salt caverns with soluble or dissolved salts, which crystallize at the store temperature while holding crystal water, or mixed with organic materials which solidify or increase the density of the contents of the cavern or mixed with solids and is fed into the cavern.

For large monumental objects like walls and façades, the common technique of applying poultices for desalination often are not effective. This practice is neither cost effective nor does it lead to the desired result of desalination. To manage the conservation and desalination of these kinds of objects, several sprinkling techniques are known and have been applied on historical objects. For example, in the wooden warship Vasa, which was excavated from the sea bottom in Stockholm/Sweden, a sprinkling method was applied in 1961 for conservation and desalination. A sprinkling method to desalinate porous mineral materials will be presented using three different case studies: the rock cut monument no. 825 in Petra/Jordan, the medieval monastary church of the former Franziscan convent in Zeitz/Germany and the baroque monastary church Santa Monica in Guadalajara/Mexico. Before to start with practical conservation, the material- and petropysical properties, focoussed on water transport properties, like porosity, pore size distribution, water uptake and drying rate were investigadet. Diagnostic investigations on the objects included the mapping of deterioration, moister content measurements and salt accumulation determined by borehole cuts samples at depth. In the sprinkling method water is sprayed onto the wall surface through nozzels arranged in a modular grid. Depending on the sprinkling duration, a small or a large amount of water seeps into the porous materials, whereby the depth penetration can be adjusted accordingly. The water not absorbed by the stone runs off the facade and can be collected in liter amounts and tested by electrical conductivity with respect to the dissolved substances. After the drying of the wall's surface and the accumulation of salt at the material's surface, the procedure is repeated. For each subsequent washing a lower content of salt should be brought to the surface. Step by step the salt concentration will eventually decrease to almost zero. By application of the sprinkling method several thousand grams of soluble salts can be extracted. A significant reduction of the salt content within the stone can be detected by drilling dust analyses. The specific situation of salt-accumulation and weathering will be illustrated in each case, along with a presentation of the results and the difficulties and experiences of practical desalination.

Some rivers on the northern slope of the eastern Kunlun Mountains in the Qaidam Basin, China, show very high concentrations of boron and lithium. Correspondingly, the salt lakes fed by these rivers show an unusual enrichment of boron and lithium, and become an important economic resource. The origin of boron and lithium has long been debated. The aim of this study is to analyze the water chemistry and hydrogen and oxygen isotopic composition of river water to understand the unusual enrichment of boron and lithium in the salt lakes of the Qaidam Basin. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope data show that the source of river water in the winter and summer originates from the Kunlun Mountain ice and snow melt water, respectively. The water chemistry shows that boron and lithium contents are high but little variable with seasons in the Nalenggele River and Wutumeiren River waters. By contrast, other rivers have much lower lithium and boron contents. Moreover, the contents of B3+ and Li+ in the river loads or bed sands show little difference amongst the rivers. This indicates that removal by adsorption or input by surface rock weathering is not the main controlling factor of the B3+ and Li+ variation in the rivers. Rivers with high B3+ and Li+ content are chemically similar to geothermal waters in the Tibetan Plateau. In addition, the source area of the Nalenggele River is located in a collision zone of the Kunlun Mountains and Altun Mountains. Large and deep faults can serve as conduits for geothermal fluids. Thus, deep geothermal waters in the source area can easily migrate to the surface and discharge as springs feeding the rivers. They are an important source of B3+ and Li+ to the rivers. The abnormally high contents of B3+ and Li+ in the Nalenggele and Wutumeiren Rivers also suggest that the geothermal source area may be a future target for boron and lithium resources.

Precipitates of polyelectrolyte complexes were transformed into rugged shapes suitable for bioimplants by ultracentrifugation in the presence of high salt concentration. Salt ions dope the complex, creating a softer material with viscous fluid-like properties. Complexes that were compacted under the centrifugal field (CoPECs) were made from poly(diallyldimethyl ammonium), PDADMA, as polycation, and poly(styrene sulfonate), PSS, or poly(methacrylic acid), PMAA, as polyanion. Dynamic mechanical testing revealed a rubbery plateau at lower frequencies for PSS/PDADMA with moduli that decreased with increasing salt concentration, as internal ion pair cross-links were broken. CoPECs had significantly lower modulii compared to similar polyelectrolyte complexes prepared by the “multilayering” method. The difference in mechanical properties was ascribed to higher water content (located in micropores) for the former and, more importantly, to their nonstoichiometric polymer composition. The modulus of PMAA/PDADMA CoPECs, under physiological conditions, demonstrated dynamic mechanical properties that were close to those of the nucleus pulposus in an intervertebral disk.

Blend gel membranes, which have high modulus, high transparency and oxygen permeability, were prepared by blending of poly(vinyl alcohol) with poly(styrene sulfonic acid) sodium salt below 17 wt% of total polymer concentration in an autoclave at elevated temperature and pressure. Every blend gel membrane has a three dimensional honey-comb structure made by bundles or tapes whose size are about 0.1—0.2 ?m. The high modulus is probably due to physically crosslinked structures formed by an interpolymer complex in addition to poly(vinyl alcohol) crystallites. The high transparency at low poly(styrene sulfonic acid) sodium salt content is caused by the small size of the bundles or tapes and high water content. Permeability coefficients of blend gel membranes are similar to that of a commercial soft contact lens.   

The influence of both solid KCl as well as K2CO3 on the oxidation of the 304L steel has been investigated in the laboratory. Three temperatures were used; 500^oC, 550^oC, and 600^oC. The steel samples were covered either with KCl or K2CO3 and held in two different atmospheres; dried air and air with a water content of 30%. Exposures with no salt were carried out as well. The exposure time in every test was 168h. The extent of corrosion, the elemental distribution as well as the identification of corrosion products was determined using a scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy dispersive x-ray analyzer (SEM/EDXA). Both salts were found to be corrosive. The structure of the formed oxide layer was similar with both salts, i.e., the outermost iron oxide layer was followed by an ox...

The role of abscisic acid (ABA) and salicylic acid (SA) in salt stress tolerance was studied in Arabidopsis thaliana using mutants that show a defect in hormone biosynthesis or signaling. Plants were subjected to either control conditions (irrigated with nutrient solution) or a moderate salt stress (nutrient solution?+?100?mM NaCl), and the response of the aba3, abi4, sid2, and eds5 mutants (with defective ABA or SA biosynthesis/signaling) was compared to that of the wild type (WT). A particular phenotype was observed in the aba3 mutant, which was characterized by reduced plant biomass and lower relative leaf water contents (RWC) under control conditions. However, salt stress reduced growth in the WT, sid2, and eds5 mutants, and to a lesser extent in the abi4 mutant, but not in the aba3 mu...

Investigative experiments were carried out on falling out factors for organisms depositing in cooling sea water channels, mainly on blue mussels , and their control measures were discussed. According to the sea area investigations on fall-out conditions of blues mussels, no distinct relationship of the fall-out with their debility after spawning was clarified. As a result of indoor experiments, it was elucidated that the fall-out factors has a relationship with water as represented by water temperature > salt content > dissolved oxygen. Taking as factors to decide the optimal organism controlling conditions the tested shell sizes, method of heating (hot water, hot air), treating temperature and time, experiments were carried out on three levels of water temperature at 38, 36 and 34 {degree}C and salt concentration at 0, 10 and 20. All the conditions saw surviving mussels . No synergism with salt concentrations was observed, whereas the optimal treatment condition was set to a 60-minute immersion in heated sea water at 40{degree}C. Sea water was flown into a simulating experimental channel to discuss required frequency for the organism prevention. Considering from their shell sizes and amount of deposition, a large amount of blue mussels' fall-out can be prevented if treatments are given from late April to early July. Preventive treatments on all kinds of organisms are thought necessary on a monthly basis as the organisms appear in any seasons throughout a year. 3 figs., 2 tabs.

LED induced chlorophyll fluorescence analysis is employed to investigate the effect of water deficit and salt stress upon the growth process of Jatropha curcas L.. Red(Fr) and far-red(FFr) chlorophyll fluorescence around 685 nm and 735 nm, respectively, were observed and examined as a function of the stress intensity(salt concentration and water deficit). The fluorescence ratio Fr/FFr which is a valuable nondestructive and nonintrusive indicator of the chlorophyll content of leaves was exploited to monitor the jatropha plants under stress. The data indicated that salinity plays a minor role in the chlorophyll concentration of leaves for NaCl concentrations in the 25 to 200 mM range. The fluorescence ratio also permitted the detection of damage caused by water deficit in the early stages...

BIOSIS COPYRIGHT: BIOL ABS. Optimal conditions of glucose, ammonium sulphate and mono acid potassium phosphate content in a manipueira-like synthetic medium for submerged fermentation of Trichosporon sp. were determined to be 90 g/l, 10 g/l and 1.0 g/l, respectively. Since manipueira, the main cassava industry waste water, usually has lower contents of carbon, nitrogen and phosphate sources, it is possible to add sugar and salts to reach these improved conditions. As a result it is possible to produce by submerged fermentation around 10 g/l Trichosporon biomass with consumption of approximately 98% from initial sugars in the medium.

Abstract:- This study examined the feasibility of coupling dehydration-impregnation by soaking (DIS) with a subsequent lactic fermentation in the treatment of meat. A series of beef fillets were subjected to 3 different DIS treatments. The resulting DIS-treated fillets had 3 different characteristics in terms of water activity, salt, and fermentable sugars contents. Fillets treated with the DIS with the shortest immersion time (5 h) and the highest salt concentration in the DIS bath (100 g/L) were inoculated with Lactobacillus sakei. A control group was left without inoculation. After 24 h incubation at 25 C, only inoculated fillets showed signs of lactic fermentation. At 24 h, these fillets had a d-lactic acid content of 68 mol/g dry basis and a high population of L. sakei revealed by met...

Abstract in english Accumulation of salts in irrigated soils is one of the primary factors limiting yield in South Asia. We investigated whether exogenous nitric oxide (NO) supplementation as sodium nitroprusside has any ameliorating effect against NaCl induced oxidative damage in chickpea leaves. NaCl treatment (250 mM) alone and in combination with two concentrations of SNP (0.2 and 1 mM) were given to 50 days old chickpea plants for 2, 4 and 6 days. Salt stress adversely affected the rela (more) tive membrane injury, lipid peroxidation levels, relative water content (RWC) and H2O2 content. The effect was time dependent. SNP treatments could ameliorate the toxic effect of short term salt stress of 2 days on relative membrane injury and partial amelioration was observed with 4 and 6 day stress treatment. A partial ameliorative effect of SNP was observed with lipid peroxidation levels, H2O2 content and RWC. Salt stress activated the antioxidant system by increasing the activities of SOD, POX, APX and DHAR. However no obvious change was observed in GR activity and CAT activity decreased under salt stress. Both the SNP treatments had a positive effect on antioxidant enzymes SOD, CAT, APX, GR and DHAR under salt stress. NaCl treatment resulted in a decline in the GSH/GSSG and ASC/DHA ratio. SNP treatments increased the reduced form of both the metabolites thus elevating the ratio of GSH/GSSG and ASC/DHA. This study concludes that exogenous application of NO protects chickpea leaves from NaCl induced oxidative stress.

The effectiveness of the actin of aqueous solutions and undiluted (commercial) demulsifiers together with mixtures of undiluted non-ionic X-2647 and P-11 demulsifiers and disolvan-4411 are compared in industrial conditions during the water separation and thermochemical desalification of oil in a turbo-cooling unit and a UKPN. It is established that replacing an aqueous demulsifier solution with an undiluted demulsifier lowers the specific consumption of the demulsifier by 10 percent and the content of chlorous salts in the prepared oil from 50-80 to 44-55 mg/1. A synergistic effect is discovered when using a mixture of disalvan-4411 and P-11(50:50) or X-2647(37:62); this caused the decrease in the content of chlorous salts in the prepared oil from 60-80 to 51-52 mg/1.

A pot experiment was carried out under glasshouse conditions with common sage (Salvia officinalis L.) to investigate the interactive effects of salt stress and kinetin on growth attributes and the abundance of pigments, ions, phenolic diterpenes and @a-tocopherol in leaf extracts of this species. The plants were subjected to the following four treatments: (i) control (nutrient solution), (ii) control + 10 @mM kinetin, (iii) salt stress (nutrient solution + 100 mM NaCl), and (iv) salt stress + 10 @mM kinetin. Kinetin was applied as a foliar fertilizer. Salt stress reduced water contents, photosynthetic activity and pigment contents of sage leaves. In addition, it increased Na^+ contents, and reduced those of Ca^2^+ and K^+ in leaves. Salt stress reduced carnosic acid and 12-O-methyl carnosi...

The nickel content of a waste water stream, such as a stream of grey water that is separated in the decanting operation of a partial oxidation process or blow-down water from a gas quench cooling and/or scrubbing operation is reduced to below 1 mg/1 to produce an environmentally upgraded water stream. In the process, the dilute waste water stream containing nickel impurities at a temperature in the range of above 60/sup 0/ to 220/sup 0/ F. is mixed with a water soluble material selected from the group consisting of formaldehyde, ionizable polysulfide salt, and hydrogen peroxide; and with dimethyl glyoxime. The pH is adjusted to a value in the range of over 7 to 11 by the addition of a base material and a water insoluble nickel precipitate forms. The precipitate and other insoluble matter are separated from the water by means of at least one conventional solids-liquid separator, and a stream of upgraded water is produced. At least a portion of the upgraded water stream may be recycled to the gas quench cooling and/or scrubbing operation. The nickel content of the upgraded water stream has been reduced to conform with environmental regulations. Further, build-up of nickel in the recycle circulating water system and the formation of troublesome nickel carbonyl are prevented.

A computational model of heat, moisture and salt transport in multi-layered systems of porous materials including salt crystallization is presented. A practical application of the model is illustrated for two different types of wall provided with interior and exterior plasters which are exposed to the climatic conditions characteristic for Central Europe. Temperature, water content, salt concentration and crystallized-salt amount fields are calculated for the time period of five years. Computational results show that water and salt transport parameters of both the load bearing structures and plasters play a very important role in the salt crystallization in surface layers. Lower transport parameters of materials of surface layers and higher transport parameters of materials of load bearing structures are found preferable.

We evaluated ecological status in the region of mixing of river and sea waters in the northern Caspian Sea with high anthropogenic pressure. We studied the regions of Volga River fore-delta, the water areas neighboring ancient hydrological transects, and the sea regions between the transects. The water areas were evaluated by biochemical degradation of organic compounds (proteinase and amylase activities) in water and bottom sediments as well as hydrochemical indices of water (salt composition and contents of dissolved oxygen and biogenic compounds). In conditions of active vegetation of phytoplankton and higher aquatic plants soon after the highest wave of the Volga flood, we studied distribution of hydrolytic enzyme activities involved in the global production/destruction cycle of high molecular weight organic compounds (proteins and polysaccharides). The data obtained with the trypsin-azocasein and alpha-amylase-modified starch tests indicates pollution of water and surface sediments in the lower reaches of Volga and the inflow sea regions. PMID:14735793

Based on a fundamental clarification of the activity of various potassium salts as precursors for potassium catalysed water vapour gasification in part 1 of this paper, the catalytic activity was studied by gasification experiments in a fixed bed flow reactor using equimolar argon/water vapour and hydrogen/water vapour mixtures. The catalytic activities found with the various potassium salts (hydroxide, carbonate, nitrate, sulphate, chloride) characterized by the onset of catalysed gasification and the maximum gasification rates during linear heating (4 K min/sup -1/), were found to be identical with the kinetics of the activation, confirming the following sequence: KOH, K/sub 2/CO/sub 3/, KNO/sub 3/>K/sub 2/SO/sub 4/>KCl. As potassium hydroxide represents the key component in the activation of all salts, the active species has to be formed from this compound. The active species is defined as a non-stoichiometric potassium-oxygen compound K/sub x/O/sub y/ (ycontents. It acts as a dissociation centre for water and transfers the oxygen to the carbon surface, from which carbon monoxide is finally desorbed. A high selectivity towards carbon dioxide found in argon/water vapour and a high selectivity towards methane in hydrogen/water vapour are explained by the shift reaction and methanation of primary formed carbon monoxide being catalysed by the actual active species of different oxygen content. Deactivation of the active species by sulphur does not occur. There is also strong irreversible deactivation of the active species by silicates. Inhibition by hydrogen is interpreted by blocking of active sites at the carbon surface. (43 refs.)

The measurement of moisture distribution in bentonite barriers in salt mines is absolutely essential in order to monitor fluid ingress and record data for long-term security analyses. The aim of this investigation was to apply a TDR measurement system using flexible flat band cable sensors in the harsh environment of a salt mine. The measurement of the dielectric material properties of sodium-bentonite sand mixtures moistened with tap water and concentrated NaCl solutions was the basis for the development of the measurement system. If the sensor was surrounded by a material mixture with strong losses it was found that both the pulse travel time and the complex wave impedance depended on the real part of permittivity and the loss factor. The step responses of the TDR sensors recorded in experiments and in electromagnetic field simulations were used to show the pulse travel time versus moisture content using tap water and concentrated NaCl solution.

The use of soil and irrigation water with a high content of soluble salts is a major limiting factor for crop productivity in the semi-arid areas of the world. While important physiological insights about the mechanisms of salt tolerance in plants have been gained, the transfer of such knowledge into crop improvement has been limited. The identification and exploitation of soil microorganisms (especially rhizosphere bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi) that interact with plants by alleviating stress opens new alternatives for a pyramiding strategy against salinity, as well as new approaches to discover new mechanisms involved in stress tolerance. Although these mechanisms are not always well understood, beneficial physiological effects include improved nutrient and water uptake, growth promotio...

Salinity toxicity is a worldwide agricultural and eco-environmental problem. Many literatures show that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can enhance salt tolerance of many plants and some physiological changes occurred in AM symbiosis under salt stress. However, the role of ROS-scavenging enzymes in AM tomato is still unknown in continuous salt stress. This study investigated the effect of Glomus mosseae on tomato growth, cell membrane osmosis and examined the antioxidants (superoxide-dismutase, SOD; catalase, CAT; ascorbate peroxidase, APX; peroxidase, POD) responses in roots of mycorrhizal tomato and control under different NaCl stress for 40 days in potted culture. NaCl solution (0, 0.5 and 1%) was added to organic soil in the irrigation water after 45 days inoculated by AMF (Glomus mosseae). (1) AMF inoculation improved tomato growth under salt or saltless condition and reduced cell membrane osmosis, MDA (malonaldehyde) content in salinity. So the salt tolerance of tomato was enhanced by AMF; (2) SOD, APX and POD activity in roots of AM symbiosis were significantly higher than corresponding non-AM plants in salinity or saltless condition. However, CAT activity was transiently induced by AMF and then suppressed to a level similar with non-AM seedlings; (3) higher salinity (1% level) and long stress time suppressed the effect of AMF on SOD, APX, POD and CAT activity; (4) this research suggested that the enhanced salt tolerance in AM symbiosis was mainly related with the elevated SOD, POD and APX activity by AMF which degraded more reactive oxygen species and so alleviated the cell membrane damages under salt stress. Whereas, the elevated SOD, POD and APX activity due to AMF depended on salinity environment. PMID:17560092

In 2000 a European work of standardization for 'Solid bio-fuels' under CEN/TC 335 was started. In Denmark this work is followed through the Danish mirror committee S-358. Denmark was asked to prepare a draft for a European standard concerning determination of the water-soluble content of chloride, sodium and potassium in solid bio-fuels. The draft should be based on the Danish 'Recommended analysis methods' no. 10 and 11 concerning respectively the determination of the water-soluble content of chloride and the water soluble content of sodium and potassium in solid bio-fuels. The content of chlorine, sodium and potassium in a fuel is important for the use of the fuel, as high contents can contribute significantly to utilisation problems such as corrosion, fouling and slagging in furnaces. The gaseous emissions from the thermal processes may also be affected. Concerning sodium and potassium it is furthermore the content of the water-soluble and readily volatile salts which is problematic in relation with energy conversion processes. Sodium and potassium bound in non-water soluble compounds as clay minerals (silicates) normally will not volatilises during the process and therefore do not contribute to the formation of deposits. A determination of the water-soluble content of sodium and potassium is therefore not an alternative routine method for sodium and potassium, but a separate method for a determination of the 'aggressive' contents of sodium and potassium. For some solid bio-fuels the water-soluble contents will however be equal to the total contents, this goes for instance for potassium in straw. There is a very large variation in the content of chlorine, sodium and potassium for the different types of solid bio-fuel, from the low contents in clean wood to contents in percentage in straw. Knowledge of the content of chlorine, sodium and potassium in a bio-fuel is thus important in relation to e.g. plant design and fuel purchasing. By that, it is important that a common and suitable European standard for determination of these contents is developed. Hopefully this last and fourth draft from October 2002 will be the final draft, which then will be sent to the Technical Committee for a formal enquiry. (BA)

The effect of salts on the vapor-liquid equilibrium of solvent mixtures is of considerable interest in the separation of close boiling and azeotropic mixtures. The salt effect has been studied by many researchers. Most investigations have been limited to measurements on the saturated salt solutions. Isobaric vapor-liquid equilibrium for ethanol (1) + water (2) + strontium nitrate (3) at various concentrations of salt and with ethanol mole fractions from 0 to 0.672, has been measured at 100.0 kPa. The results were correlated by assuming that the salt was in ionic form and it was associated only with the water.

The Process Evaluation Section at Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) has a major program aimed at developing cost-effective technologies for salt cake recycling. This paper addresses the economic feasibility of technologies for the recovery of aluminum, salt, and residue-oxide fractions from salt cake. Four processes were assessed for salt recovery from salt cake: (1) base case: leaching in water at 25{degree}C, with evaporation to crystallize salts; (2) high-temperature case: leaching in water at 250{degree}C, with flash crystallization to precipitate salts; (3) solventlantisolvent case: leaching in water at 25{degree}C, concentrating by evaporation, and reacting with acetone to precipitate salts; and (4) electrodialysis: leaching in water at 25{degree}C, with concentration and recovery of salts by electrodialysis. All test cases for salt recovery had a negative present value, given current pricing structure and 20% return on investment. Although manufacturing costs (variable plus fixed) could reasonably be recovered in the sales price of the salt product, capital costs cannot. The economics for the recycling processes are improved, however, if the residueoxide can be sold instead of landfilled. For example, the base case process would be profitable at a wet oxide value of $220/metric ton. The economics of alternative scenarios were also considered, including aluminum recovery with landfilling of salts and oxides.

Clay present in sandstones is sensitive to the water saturation and to the kind of ions and their concentration in the flowing water. The reaction of the rock upon these factors manifests itself as an internal swelling or internal shrinkage of the rock and the resulting permeability changes in the water flow. This paper describes experimental investigations into permeability changes occuring in the flow of water and water solutions of salt of various concentrations in sandstones collected from oil reservoirs and from hard coal mines. Experiments with the flow of water and of solutions in coal are also mentioned. Increasing the water content in sandstones from an air-dry condition to the state of full saturation results in rapid (within hours or days) internal swelling of the rock leading to a decrease in permeability which can achieve two or three orders of magnitude. In the flows of water solutions of salt in sandstones it is possible to produce changes in permeability (increase or decrease) even by two orders of magnitude by means of changing the concentration or the ion composition of the solution. The flow of a diluted solution of calcium hydroxide proved to be very effective in increasing permeability. Big effects were obtained even when using low concentrations of this solution, which suggests the possibility of a practical application for the observed phenomena. 11 refs., 8 figs.

The paper highlights the role of geomorphosites on salt, in experts and specialists training, in geography of tourism and planning, namely, the involvement of educational factor in defining managerial and marketing skills of future specialists in training. Geographical area of investigation belongs to the Transylvanian tectonic basin, overlapped to saliferous tectonic area from eastern Transylvania, represented by Praid - Sovata - Corund anticline and Sic -Cojocna - Turda anticline, analysis is focused on the Praid - Sovata and Turda diapirs. Saliferous area Praid - Sovata - Corund is situated on the contact area of the Transylvanian Basin with neo-eruptiv mountain chain of Eastern Carpathians, Calimani - Gurghiu - Harghita, and at the contact of Târnavelor Plateau with the orogen alignment of Gurghiu - Harghita Mountains. The salt body, in the horizontal plane, has a quasi-circular shape, slightly ellipsoidal, with diameters of 1.2 and 1.4 km, and is estimated to have a burial depth of 2.6 to 2.8 km. The salt massif from Praid, pierce the Mio-Pliocene blanket around and appears at the surface as diapir, flanked by sedimentary rocks that are partially covered by extrusive post-Pliocene volcanic formations and Quaternary deposits. Evaporitic deposits presents a varied lithology represented by gypsum, anhydrite, salt rock, potassium salt and celestine. The salt massif from Turda develops on the anticline Sic -Cojocna - Turda, oriented NE - SW, 2 km NE of Turda's downtown. It has an elongated shape, about 4 km, with widths ranging from 700 m to 200 m and also with a thickness ranging from 750 m to over 1000 m. In terms of stratigraphy, the salt massif is surrounded by deposits belonging to Badenian, Sarmatian and Quaternary. Due to salt dissolution by meteoric waters, carsto-saline lakes were formed, and due to ceiling collapse, because of an intensive exploitation, and infiltrations of rainwater and rivers, antropo-salted lakes were formed. The water and mud of these lakes are used for external treatment. The holes resulting from exploitation were arranged and turned into treatment rooms for those affected by respiratory diseases. Localities Praid and Sovata from rural settlements, have become balneary resorts, that use these salt resources by multiple forms of tourism: spas, climatic, cultural, recreational and scientific. In Turda has developed both health, climacteric and recreational tourism, as well as cultural and historical tourism, given the historical relics that are housed here. The design of applicative segment of geomorphological sites on salt recovery, through tourism activities is the objective of our work. Methodological argumentation is supported by the objective motivation, of geomorphosites on salt capitalization, by the content of syllabus and specialization of geography of tourism and territorial planning, from the Faculty of Geography, Babes-Bolyai University from Cluj-Napoca. The syllabus content argues the need for knowledge of geomorphosites genesis, their morphology, touristic valences, urbanistic valences, and the possibility of recovery, through forms and types of tourism, namely, urban, agricultural, industrial forms and types of exploitation. Key words: salt, geomorphosites, Praid, Turda, recovery

Salinity poses a serious threat to yield performance of cultivated rice in South Asian countries. To understand the mechanism of salt-tolerance of the wild halophytic rice, Porteresia coarctata in contrast to the salt-sensitive domesticated rice Oryza sativa, we have compared P. coarctata with the domesticated O. sativa rice varieties under salinity stress with respect to several physiological parameters and changes in leaf protein expression. P. coarctata showed a better growth performance and biomass under salinity stress. Relative water content was conserved in Porteresia during stress and sodium ion accumulation in leaves was comparatively lesser. Scanning electron microscopy revealed presence of two types of salt hairs on two leaf surfaces, each showing a different behaviour under stress. High salt stress for prolonged period also revealed accumulation of extruded NaCl crystals on leaf surface. Changes induced in leaf proteins were studied by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and subsequent quantitative image analysis. Out of more than 700 protein spots reproducibly detected and analyzed, 60% spots showed significant changes under salinity. Many proteins showed steady patterns of up- or downregulation in response to salinity stress. Twenty protein spots were analyzed by MALDI-TOF, leading to identification of 16 proteins involved in osmolyte synthesis, photosystem functioning, RubisCO activation, cell wall synthesis and chaperone functions. We hypothesize that some of these proteins confer a physiological advantage on Porteresia under salinity, and suggest a pattern of salt tolerance strategies operative in salt-marsh grasses. In addition, such proteins may turn out to be potential targets for recombinant cloning and introgression in salt-sensitive plants. PMID:19130079

A 20-cm high column of MX80 bentonite compacted at dry density 1.70 g/cm{sup 3} with an initial water content of 16 percent was submitted to heating and hydration by opposite ends for 496 days (TH test). The temperature at the bottom of the column was set at 140 degree centigrade and on top at 30 degree centigrade, and deionised water was injected on top at a pressure of 0.01 MPa. Upon dismantling water content, dry density, mineralogy, specific surface area, cation exchange capacity, content of exchangeable cations, and concentration of soluble salts and pH of aqueous extracts were determined in different positions along the bentonite column. The pore water composition was modelled with a geochemical software. The test tried to simulate the conditions of an engineered barrier in a deep geological repository for high-level radioactive waste. The water intake and distribution of water content and dry density along the bentonite were conditioned by the thermal gradient. Liquid water did not penetrate into the column beyond the area in which the temperature was higher than 100 degree centigrade. A convection cell was formed above this area, and liquid water loaded with ions evaporated towards cooler bentonite as it reached the area where the temperature was too high. In this area precipitation of mineral phases took place, Advection, interlayer exchange and dissolution/precipitation processes conditioned the composition of the pore water along the column. In most of the column the pore water was Na-SO{sub 4} {sup 2}- type, and changed to Na-Cl near the heater. TH treatment did not cause significant changes in the smectite content or the other mineral phases of the bentonite. (Author) 41 refs.

Various salts can be substituted for sodium chloride (NaCl) to give food a salty taste. In these experiments, a small percentage of total NaCl was replaced by another salt (KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2). The effects of these various salts on the physical strength and water-retention ability of egg sol/gels were investigated. In addition, the saltiness of diluted egg gels and solid cooked rice seasoned by these salt mixtures was evaluated by a large number of individuals. Results showed that substitution of Na by Mg or Ca salt imparted the egg white gels with high breaking stress and strain, and the egg gels showed less water loss by syneresis as compared with gels to which Mg or Ca salt alone had been added. Furthermore, substitution by K or Mg salt was acceptable by taste in egg solution gel and boiled rice, but when Ca was substituted, it was acceptable by taste only in boiled rice.   

Jatropha curcas L. is a biodiesel crop that is resistant to drought stress. However, the salt tolerance of this plant has not yet been studied. To address this question, J. curcas seedlings were grown in a fertilised substrate to evaluate the effects of salinity stress on growth, leaf water relation and organic solutes, leaf and root mineral concentrations, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, and carbohydrate concentration. The experiment consisted of six treatments with different concentrations of NaCl in the irrigation water: 0 (control), 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 mM. The total biomass exhibited a salt-induced decrease in the 60 mM or higher NaCl concentrations. The Cl(r) concentration was higher than the Na(+) concentration in all of the plant tissues. The water potential and relative water content of the leaves were not affected by any of the salt treatments. However, salinity induced a decline in the leaf K(+) concentration, together with a significant enhancement in the leaf P, S, Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu levels. The net assimilation of CO? also decreased with the salt treatment, due in part to non-stomatal limitation from the increase in C(a)/C(i) and a decrease in the maximum quantum efficiency (F(v)/F(m)) of photosystem II and soil plant analysis development (SPAD) units. This work suggests that J. curcas seedlings exhibit a moderate tolerance to salinity, as the plants were able to tolerate up to 4 dS m(-1) (EC water irrigation; 30 mM NaCl). The negative influences of salinity in this crop are mainly due to Cl(r) and/or Na(+) toxicity and to a nutritional imbalance caused by an increase in the Na(+)/K(+) ratio. The osmotic effect of salinity in this species is negligible, perhaps due to its strong control of leaf transpiration, which reduces water loss. PMID:22377428

Choline monooxygenase (CMO) catalyzes the committing step in the synthesis of glycine betaine, an osmoprotectant accumulated by many plants in response to salinity and drought. To investigate how these stresses affect CMO expression, a spinach (Spinacia oleracea L., Chenopodiaceae) probe was used to isolate CMO cDNAs from sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L., Chenopodiaceae), a salt- and drought-tolerant crop. The deduced beet CMO amino acid sequence comprised a transit peptide and a 381-residue mature peptide that was 84% identical (97% similar) to that of spinach and that showed the same consensus motif for coordinating a Rieske-type [2Fe-2S] cluster. A mononuclear Fe-binding motif was also present. When water was withheld, leaf relative water content declined to 59% and the levels of CMO mRNA, protein, and enzyme activity rose 3- to 5-fold; rewatering reversed these changes. After gradual salinization (NaCl:CaCl2 = 5.7:1, mol/mol), CMO mRNA, protein, and enzyme levels in leaves increased 3- to 7-fold at 400 mM salt, and returned to uninduced levels when salt was removed. Beet roots also expressed CMO, most strongly when salinized. Salt-inducible CMO mRNA, protein, and enzyme activity were readily detected in leaves of Amaranthus caudatus L. (Amaranthaceae). These data show that CMO most probably has a mononuclear Fe center, is inducibly expressed in roots as well as in leaves of Chenopodiaceae, and is not unique to this family. PMID:9489025

Interfacial water structure is a most important parameter that influences the collector adsorption by salt minerals such as borax, potash and trona. According to previous studies, salts can be classified as water structure makers and water structure breakers. Water structure making and breaking properties of salt minerals in their saturated brine solutions are essential to explain their flotation behavior. In this work, water structure making-breaking studies in solutions of carbonate and bicarbonate salts (Na2CO3, K2CO3, NaHCO3 and NH4HCO3) in 4 wt% D2O in H2O mixtures have been performed by FTIR analysis of the OD stretching band. This method reveals a microscopic picture of the water structure making/breaking character of the salts in terms of the hydrogen bonding between the water mole...

This procedure describes the formulation and make-up of Simulated Concentrated Water (SCW), a high-ionic-content water to be used for Activity E-20-50 Long-Term Corrosion Studies. This water has an ionic content which is nominally a factor of a thousand higher than that of representative waters at or near Yucca Mountain. Representative waters were chosen as J-13 well water [Harrar, 1990] and perched water at Yucca Mountain [Glassley, 1996]. J-13 well water is obtained from ground water that is in contact with the Topopah Spring tuff, which is the repository horizon rock. The perched water is located in the Topopah Spring tuff, but below the repository horizon and above the water table. A nominal thousand times higher ionic content was chosen to simulate the water that would result from the wetting of salts which have been previously deposited on a container surface.

Light-emitting-diode induced chlorophyll fluorescence analysis is employed to investigate the effect of water and salt stress upon the growth process of physicnut(jatropha curcas) grain oil plants for biofuel. Red(Fr) and far-red (FFr) chlorophyll fluorescence emission signals around 685 nm and 735 nm, respectively, were observed and examined as a function of the stress intensity(salt concentration and water deficit) for a period of time of 30 days. The chlorophyll fluorescence(ChlF) ratio Fr/FFr which is a valuable nondestructive and nonintrusive indicator of the chlorophyll content of leaves was exploited to monitor the level of stress experienced by the jatropha plants. The ChlF technique data indicated that salinity plays a minor role in the chlorophyll concentration of leaves tissues for NaCl concentrations in the 25 to 200 mM range, and results agreed quite well with those obtained using conventional destructive spectrophotometric methods. Nevertheless, for higher NaCl concentrations a noticeable decrease in the Chl content was observed. The Chl fluorescence ratio analysis also permitted detection of damage caused by water deficit in the early stages of the plants growing process. A significant variation of the Fr/FFr ratio was observed sample in the first 10 days of the experiment when one compared control and nonwatered samples. The results suggest that the technique may potentially be applied as an early-warning indicator of stress caused by water deficit.

ABSTRACT: Caviar was prepared from white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) roe by adjusting the water phase salt (WPS) to 4.0% to 6.3% by adding food grade NaCl. Fish were obtained from 2 different farms from the Inland Northwest (N = 5). Salt was absorbed at a different rate and to a different extent by roe from different fish. The lipid content in the fish roe varied from 10.2% to 14.4% (w/w), with palmitic acid and oleic acid being the most abundant saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids present, respectively. The caviar contained high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) (35% to 37%) with docosahexanoic acid being the most abundant -3 long chain fatty acid. There were no significant differences in microbial storage stability for caviars from different fish stored at 3 degre...

To assess uranium and lanthanides behavior in hypersaline environments, surficial sediment samples were taken from Laguna Ojo de Liebre as well as from the evaporation ponds of Exportadora de Sal (the largest natural salt producing facility in the continent). A total of 63 surficial sediment samples from the laguna and 30 samples from the ponds were analyzed by inductive coupled plasma-mass spectrometry for uranium (sediments, deposits and solution) and instrumental neutron activation analysis for REEs in sediments and deposits. Results show that the behavior is all but similar between light and heavy REEs with the exception of Eu which shows a very different pattern of surficial distribution in Laguna Ojo de Liebre with a maximum concentrations in the sediments near the head of the lagoon. Data normalized with North American Shale Composite (NASC) show 3 distinct signature patterns on the surficial sediments, all of them enriched regarding the values of NASC. As for U total content in sediments and solid deposits it shows a higher concentration towards the head of the lagoon (3 mg/kg), from where the water is pumped to the sequence of evaporation ponds, with the lowest values being close to 1 mg/kg near the mouth of the lagoon. The interesting phenomenon begins in the evaporation ponds, where uranium is almost constant in sediments and deposits (0.15-1.5 mg/kg) but behaves conservately in the brine solution, increasing proportionally with salt content (U, 5-20 mg/kg; salt content, 40-250 g/kg). Non lithogenic U was calculated with Sc as reference. Most of the measured U was non lithogenic in the sediments of the lagoon and ponds. The distribution coefficient k= U(non-lith)/U(dis) shows a maximum value at ponds I and II (salt content 40-80 g/kg) decreasing with increasing salinity.

Reflectometry and quartz crystal microbalance are used to study the response of adsorbed polyelectrolyte monolayers to solutions of variable composition. These techniques yield respectively the dry and wet masses of the adsorbed layer and by combing these results one obtains the water content and the thickness of the polyelectrolyte films. The systems investigated are films of adsorbed poly(allyl amine) (PAH) and poly-L-lysine (PLL) on silica and films of poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS) on amino-functionalized silica. When such films are adsorbed from concentrated polyelectrolyte solutions containing high levels of salt, they are found to swell reversibly up to a factor of two when incubated in solutions of low salt. This swelling is attributed to the strengthening of repulsive electrostatic interactions between the adsorbed polyelectrolyte chains. PAH films may also swell upon decrease of pH, and collapse upon a pH increase. This transition shows a marked hysteresis and can be rationalized by the competition of electrostatic repulsions between the chains and their attraction to the surface. The presently observed swelling phenomena are caused by a collective process driven by the electrostatic repulsion between the densely adsorbed polyelectrolyte chains. Such responsive layers are only obtained by adsorption from high polyelectrolyte and salt concentrations. Layers absorbed at low polyelectrolyte and salt concentrations show only minor swelling effects, since the adsorbed polyelectrolytes layers are dilute and the adsorbed polyelectrolyte chains interact only weakly. PMID:23171242

This paper presents the work performed within ADIRA project funded by European Union as a consortium of many countries to boost the integration of desalination units with renewable energy in rural areas. The work focused on the study of Water desalination by Reverse Osmosis (RO) and electricity generation using Photovoltaic Technology (PV) with additional battery storage. RO-PV system has been successfully designed, installed and tested in Hartha Charitable Society in northern part of Jordan as part of the ADIRA project. The system is composed of PV panels (433 Wp), softener and compact RO unit with typical daily water production of 500 L. The system produced clean drinking water from a salty water feed with salt content up to 1700 mg/L. The technical details of the RO plant, the energy su...

The aim of the project is to collect technical and technological data on drying in order to establish optimal drying conditions for the production of salted and dried cod. Optimal drying conditions form the basis for ensuring even drying after leaving the drying-room, increased productivity and reduced energy- and running expenses for the production of salted and dry ed cod. The measured results form the basis for the choice of process plan and decision for drying time for a given raw material and size of fish. Air temperature, humidity and air velocity in the drying-room together with the raw material and salt maturing affect the drying time in different ways. The aim is to find the concrete effect of these parameters. During the project trials have been done on salt fish of pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus), cod (Gadus morhua) and pollock (Pollachius virens) in a laboratory scale tunnel-dryer. The report highlights the importance of (a) after-drying during storing and maturing, (b) increased cut and (c) varying salt maturing. The results demonstrate that the air velocity has little influence on drying velocity once the surface water has been removed from the product, while air humidity has a certain influence. This entails the possibility of a change in drying process and a reduction of energy and running costs by giving the fish a finishing drying in separate storage or by reducing the air velocity after 24 hours. Size and surface influence considerably on drying velocity, and it is observed that small fish dries much faster than large fish. Fish of about 1.5 kilograms dries to a water content of 52% after approximately 50 hours, while equivalent fish of 4.5 kilograms need approximately 75 hours at a drying temperature of 22 degrees Celsius and 40 % R H. By increasing the drying surface measurements show an increase of 2.5% in loss of weight for small fish (1.5 kilograms) after 2 days of drying. The final content of water in fish that had been matured for 24 days in brine was 49,9 % ( +- 1,9) after 3 days of drying. Equivalently the water content was 55,3 % ( +- 0,6) after 3 days of drying for fish that had matured 7 days in brine(EW). 8 refs., 12 figs., 2 tabs

Two wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars, Sids 1 and Giza 168, were grown under non-saline or saline conditions (4.7 and 9.4dSm^-^1) and were sprayed with 0.00, 0.05 and 0.10mgl^-^1 24-epibrassinolide (EBL). Salt stress considerably decreased plant productivity, membrane stability index, photochemical reactions of photosynthesis, the content of relative water, chlorophyll and nitrate, the activity of nitrate reductase and carbonic anhydrase and the level of carbohydrate and protein. The reduction was more pronounced in Giza 168. The follow-up treatment with 0.1mgl^-^1 EBL detoxified the stress generated by salinity and significantly improved the above parameters, especially in Sids 1. Glycinebetaine concentration was sharply elevated by salt stress and/or EBL treatments, particularly in ...

Ion-exchange water softening results in the discharge of excess sodium chloride to the aquatic environment during the regeneration cycle. In order to reduce sodium chloride use and subsequent discharge from ion-exchange processes, either brine reclaim operations can be implemented or salt application during regeneration can be reduced. Both result in tradeoffs related to loss of bed volumes treated per cycle and increased hardness leakage. An experimentally validated model was used to compare concurrent water softening operations at various salt application quantities with and without the direct reuse of waste brine for treated tap water of typical midwestern water quality. Both approaches were able to reduce salt use and subsequent discharge. Reducing salt use and discharge by lowering the salt application rate during regeneration consequently increased hardness leakage and decreased treatment capacity. Single or two tank brine recycling systems are capable of reducing salt use and discharge without increasing hardness leakage, although treatment capacity is reduced. PMID:22866395

A metal ion found primarily in one of the three phases (oil, water, or dust) can serve as a marker for that phase. Emulsified water contains most of the magnesium detected in a shale oil. Extraction with saturated salt solution removes most of that Mg. The Mg content of retort water and the percentage of water in the oil (by ASTM D-4006) provides a good estimate of an oil`s Mg content. Mineral matter elements with poorly water soluble carbonates (or oxides) at pH 8 (calcium, for example) serve as markers for dust. When the water is separated from the main and light oil fractions before adding the heavy fraction containing dust, a much drier oil can be obtained. However, when done in this way, a powder containing Ca and Si remains in the oil; it cannot be completely removed even by filtering through a 0.24-{mu} frit. Iron, and certain other transition metal ions, is quite oil soluble. Extraction with dilute nitric acid to remove basic amines reduces the Fe content of shale oil. Unlike carboxylate- complexed metal ions in crude oils, the iron in shale oil does not extract efficiently into an aqueous EDTA solution (pH 5.9). Distillation of shale oil leaves most of the iron and other metals behind in the vacuum residum. Shale oil corrodes the hottest condenser`s steel interior; this is the chief source of iron in the oil.

AND WASH WITH COOL WATER. (REPEAT ... SOAK IN BOILING WATiSR. 12 ... WASH WITH WATER AND AIR. DRY. FIG. ... solution of metallic salts followed by reacting the surface ..... parting from the spirit or scope of the present invention.

Tissues of Laminaria transferred from sea water to solutions of pure salts, and thence to other solutions of pure salts, or to sea water, behave in a manner which can be predicted by means of the equations previously developed. The behavior of the tissue may be explained as due to a series of caten...

The sources and origin of salts in the basin of the two salt- affected Shapur and Dalaki rivers (Southern Iran) and the processes involved in salinization have been studied. The extent of water deterioration have been identified by examining spatial changes in the rivers water quality. Among sal...

Remediation of contaminated vadose zones is often hindered by an inability to effectively distribute amendments. Many amendment-based approaches have been successful in saturated formations, however, have not been widely pursued when treating contaminated unsaturated materials due to amendment distribution limitations. Aerosol delivery is a promising new approach for distributing amendments in contaminated vadose zones. Amendments are aerosolized and injected through well screens. During injection the aerosol particles are transported with the gas and deposited on the surfaces of soil grains. Resulting distributions are radially and vertically broad, which could not be achieved by injecting pure liquid-phase solutions. The objectives of this work were A) to characterize transport and deposition behaviors of aerosols; and B) to develop capabilities for predicting results of aerosol injection scenarios. Aerosol transport and deposition processes were investigated by conducting lab-scale injection experiments. These experiments involved injection of aerosols through a 2m radius, sand-filled wedge. A particle analyzer was used to measure aerosol particle distributions with time, and sand samples were taken for amendment content analysis. Predictive capabilities were obtained by constructing a numerical model capable of simulating aerosol transport and deposition in porous media. Results from tests involving vegetable oil aerosol injection show that liquid contents appropriate for remedial applications could be readily achieved throughout the sand-filled wedge. Lab-scale tests conducted with aqueous aerosols show that liquid accumulation only occurs near the point of injection. Tests were also conducted using 200 g/L salt water as the aerosolized liquid. Liquid accumulations observed during salt water tests were minimal and similar to aqueous aerosol results. However, particles were measured, and salt deposited distal to the point of injection. Differences between aqueous and oil deposition are assumed to occur due to surface interactions, and susceptibility to evaporation of aqueous aerosols. Distal salt accumulation during salt water aerosol tests suggests that solid salt forms as salt water aerosols evaporate. The solid salt aerosols are less likely to deposit, so they travel further than aqueous aerosols. A numerical model was calibrated using results from lab-scale tests. The calibrated model was then used to simulate field-scale aerosol injection. Results from field-scale simulations suggest that effective radii of influence on the scale of 8-10 meters could be achieved in partially saturated sand. The aerosol delivery process appears to be capable distributing oil amendments over considerable volumes of formation at concentrations appropriate for remediation purposes. Thus far, evaporation has limited liquid accumulation observed when distributing aqueous aerosols, however, results from salt water experiments suggest that injection of solid phase aerosols can effectively distribute water soluble amendments (electron donor, pH buffer, oxidants, etc.). Utilization of aerosol delivery could considerably expand treatment options for contaminated vadose zones at a wide variety of sites.

This paper forms the first part of a series. In this first part, a broad range of normal and high-performance (HP) hardened cement pastes and concretes is studied under both laboratory and in-situ conditions.Water vapour desorption?adsorption experiments are carried out by means of the saturated salt solution method on very thin specimens. The effect of various parameters and in particular of the mix-composition is studied on the so-called water vapour sorption isotherms (WVSIs). It is found that the presence of aggregates does not influence the curves. Likewise, the peculiarities of HP materials are highlighted: within the high relative humidity (RH) range, significant lower water contents are measured than for normal materials, and large RH changes induce only slight variations of water ...

Salt stress has been applied to improve the quality of tomato, but detailed information about the changes in antioxidant systems in salt-stressed fruit is not available. In this study, we examined the effect of salt stress on oxidative parameters, antioxidant content and antioxidant enzymes in two tomato cultivars during two cropping seasons. Salt stress was applied by adding 100mM NaCl to the nutrient solution. We show that tomato fruits have antioxidant systems to protect themselves from salt-induced oxidative stress. This finding is supported by the lipid peroxidation and hydrogen peroxide levels, which remained unchanged under salt stress conditions. However, these antioxidant systems depend on cultivars and cropping seasons. In the summer crop, the antioxidant systems in salt-stressed...

Abstract in english The hydrated sodium salt of EDTA, Na2H2Y·2H2O, cannot be used as a primary standard for titrations due to uncertainties in the water content. An alkalimetric titration of the homogenized solid in the presence of a small excess of BaCl2·2H2O allows one to titrate quantitatively the released two hydrogen cations with end-point indication by phenolphthalein or potentiometry. This leads one to calculate the average molar mass of the reagent and its water content (more) , allowing to use it to prepare EDTA standard solutions. One titrated sample led to the formula Na2H2Y·1.876 H2O, and 370.01 g.mol-1 for the average molar mass.

Plasma renin activity (PRA), plasma renin concentration (PRC) and brain serotonin content were investigated 48 h after i.p. administration of central serotonin depletor p-chlorophenylalanine (pCPA) (300 mg kg-1) in male Wistar (Wi) and diabetes insipidus Brattleboro (DI) rats. Water-salt balance and systolic blood pressure were followed up to 7th day after treatment. In addition, PRA was studied 48 h after drug administration in adrenalectomized and renal denervated Wi rats. Similar decrease of brain serotonin concentration was observed in both Wi and DI rats 48 h after pCPA treatment. PRA in Wi rats was unchanged despite the observed negative water-salt balance, decreased in adrenalectomized and renal denervated Wi rats and increased in DI rats in comparison with respective vehicle-treated controls. In WI rats PRC was not affected by pCPA but increased in DI rats. Negative water-salt balance was observed in both Wi and DI rats on the first day following treatment due to polyuria and suppressed food intake. During next following days a mild elevation of systolic blood pressure was found in both groups associated with opposite urinary responses: antidiuresis in Wi and polyuria in DI rats. The results indirectly show that pCPA-induced suppression of renal renin secretion observed in Wi rats may be due to prevailing inhibitory action of antidiuretic hormone. PMID:2959466

Background and Aims Chenopodium quinoa can grow at altitudes of 3,600?4,000 masl and is adapted to the highly arid conditions typical of the salty soils in the South American Altiplano, with less than 250?mm of annual rain and temperatures below 0?C. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of salinity on the dehydrin content of mature embryos harvested from salt-stressed Chenopodium quinoa cv. Hualhuas plants grown at 100 to 500?mM NaCl. To date, no studies exist on the dehydrins of seeds from salt-stressed plants, although dehydrins in the root, stems and leaves have been reported as an adaptation to water deficit produced by salinity. Methods Dehydrin-like protein detection was carried out with an antiserum raised against a highly-conserved lysine-rich 15-amino acid sequence k...

Studies were made of the wetting properties of mixtures of nonionogenic surfactant, diethanol amides of synthetic fatty acids of fraction C/sub 10/-C/sub 13/ with anion surfactant, sodium (or potassium) salt of bottoms of synthetic fatty acids. The method of film flotation determines the rate of wetting of finely dispersed coal dust (fraction less than 50 um) in surfactant solutions. An experimental analysis was made of the correlation of both surfactants for optimal wetting of coal dust of varying stage of metamorphism. The optimal salt content of the bottoms changes for different coal brands from 10 to 50% in relation to noniongenic surfactant. An increase is shown in the stability of aqueous solutions and improvement in the wetting capacity of the mixed surfactant solutions during contact with hard water in the presence of polyphosphates (in a quantity up to 0.2% by mass in the working solution).

To successfully use salt water for crop production and start a breeding program, more information is needed about the response of salt-tolerant plants to saline environments. The objective of this experiment was to test the growth of 12 cultivars of the United Arab Emirates date palm seeds at four sodium chloride (NaCl) levels. The experiment was a randomized complete block design with three replicates. Optimal growth was found at control and 3000 ppm of NaCl. Relative growth rate (RGR), biomass, and number of leaves (NL) decreased significantly by increasing salinity. Increased NaCl leads to significant decreases in potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+), and calcium (Ca2+) contents of plants. The Na/K ratios were lower in shoots than in roots. 'Lulu,' 'Fard,' 'Khnaizi,' 'Nabtat Safi,' and...

A method for removing actinide contaminants (uranium and thorium) from the spent salt of a molten salt oxidation (MSO) reactor is described. Spent salt is removed from the reactor and analyzed to determine the contaminants present and the carbonate concentration. The salt is dissolved in water, and one or more reagents are added to precipitate the thorium as thorium oxide and/or the uranium as either uranium oxide or as a diuranate salt. The precipitated materials are filtered, dried and packaged for disposal as radioactive waste. About 90% of the thorium and/or uranium present is removed by filtration. After filtration, salt solutions having a carbonate concentration >20% can be dried and returned to the reactor for re-use. Salt solutions containing a carbonate concentration <20% require further clean-up using an ion exchange column, which yields salt solutions that contain less than 0.1 ppm of thorium or uranium.

... For Consumers Home For Consumers Consumer Updates Section Contents Menu Consumer Updates Animal & Veterinary Children's Health Cosmetics ... salt, and alcohol. Meet recommended nutrient intakes within energy needs by adopting a balanced eating pattern, such ...

Process and apparatus for the desalting and dehydration of crude oil is described, in which the crude oil is washed in one or several stages using fresh or recirculated hot water containing a demulsifier. The crude oil is also passed through a coalescence stage, and a settling stage aimed at obtaining a salt content to meet crude oil specifications. Subsequently the crude oil is led into a lower stripping compartment of a column, in which dehydration is carried out to the desired level by using fuel or combustion gas. The stripping temperature is reached by heating the crude or the gas or both. The gas-vapor mixture is cooled in the upper compartment of the column by a cooling fluid such as the untreated crude oil or recirculated or fresh water, depending upon the nature and salt content of the crude. The cooled gas is recirculated within the column or led to a pipeline for consumption, while the cooling fluid, in the case of water, is recirculated in the unit.

Hydrophilic bulky proteins with molecular weights larger than 60 kDa, such as catalase, {beta}-galactosidase, BSA and hemoglobin, can be easily solubilized into a micro water pool of AOT reverse micelles by the injection method. Those proteins and enzymes solubilized into reverse micelles maintain their activities and native structures, and can be back-extracted effectively to a new aqueous phase when the system pH is kept higher than their isoelectric points, pI, with low salt concentration, i.e. high water content. The back-extraction of hemoglobin is also partially achieved under these conditions. The efficiency of back-extraction is strongly influenced by the pH values in the feed protein solution and in the aqueous solution used for back-extraction, as well as KCl concentration in the solution. The pH values of both solutions should be higher than the protein pI together with high Wo or low salt concentration to preserve native structures and activities, since monomers and oligomers with relatively large molecular weight are likely to be denatured by association with ionic surfactant mediated by salt. In this case, both steric and electrostatic interactions between bulky proteins and micelles play dominant roles in the separation. By reducing interactions with micelles or surfactants, proteins solubilized in micelles can be effectively stabilized, and easily back-extracted to the aqueous phase without inactivation. The present method suggests an another way for the effective bioseparation of bulky proteins with high yields of activity. 23 refs., 8 figs., 2 tabs.

The multi-gram scale preparation of halide free lipophilic borate salts from inexpensive precursor compounds 3,3prime,5,5prime-tetra-tert-butyl-2,2prime-biphenol and tetrahydridoboranate salts is reported. The so-called "bortebate" anion is more stable against water and bases than its aluminum analog "altebate", but bortebate formation is significantly slower. Bortebate salts are highly soluble in hydrocarbon solvents, e.g. >35mmol/L lithium bortebate in pentane at 20degreeC. Quantitative salt metathesis reactions between sodium bortebate and halide salts can be easily achieved by precipitation of the sodium halide in methylene chloride.

In addition to improving oxygen permeability, modern silicone-hydrogel (SiHy) soft contact lenses (SCLs) exceed a limiting diffusive ion permeability to aqueous sodium chloride. Below the ion-permeability threshold, siloxane-based SCLs are prone to bind against the corneal epithelium. Salt permeability is argued to reflect indirectly water hydraulic permeability. However, no quantitative explanation is available to date for a threshold salt permeability. We hypothesize that molecular salt diffusion through a SCL supports the postlens tear film (PoLTF) by enhancing water flow into the PoLTF from the cornea. Higher salt concentrations in the PoLTF raise the osmotic pressure there relative to that in the cornea increasing osmotic water withdrawal from the cornea. The proposed osmotic-withdrawal mechanism successfully predicts a self-consistent threshold lens salt permeability when thin-film attractive binding forces are introduced. For the first time, we present a quantitative picture for the possible origin of a threshold salt permeability in SCL manufacture. PMID:22840754

Typical of many hyper arid soils of the Dry Valleys of Antarctica, soils in Victoria Valley contain ~10% ice (at 0.3 m depth) and ~0.4% salt, mostly calcium and sodium sulfates and chlorides, making them excellent analogs to Martian soils. Vapor diffusion models designed to investigate ground ice dynamics on Mars are not entirely satisfactory because they lead to the unrealistic expectation that soils in Antarctica should be ice free within a 1000 years of being saturated with ice, and yet even ancient soils characteristically contain abundant ice near the surface. Validation of these diffusion models has been limited because of the paucity of field based climate and soil climate data. Moreover the models ignore the significant effects of snow cover, surface melt water and salts on vapor fluxes. To better understand the presence and stability of the shallow subsurface ice we are exploring the effect of snow cover and salts on vapor fluxes. Ice stability was investigated using high-resolution climate and soil temperature data from 2002 to 2005. According to the vapor diffusion model ice sublimates at an average rate of 0.22 mm a-1, corresponding to an ice recession of ~1.3 mm a-1 for soil with 10% ice content. Some of the water vapor is transported to the atmosphere; however, some water vapor accumulates at depth in the soil. Furthermore, snow cover during the summer may substantially reduce annual ice loss. Stable isotopes (?18O & ?D) in ice along a 1.6m vertical soil profile reveal a deuterium excess (-13 to -77 ‰) with the greatest enrichment of heavy isotopes at the top of the ice cement and decreasing with depth to form a concave-down profile. This isotopic profile was interpreted using a quantitative model of H2O transport in perennially frozen soil, including the advection-dispersion of heavy isotope- enriched surface water into the ice-cement. It suggests an average infiltration rate of 0.7 mm a-1 of brine if 2.5% of the H2O present is unfrozen, a quantity supported by salt concentration and the temperature record. According to the solute content and temperature of these soils and phase equilibria, sulfates mostly gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O), and mirabilite (Na2SO4 10H2O) are present in dry and ice rich soils. Dry soils, due to hydration have the potential to store 7.5 mm of water in the top 0.22 m of dry soil. Both the sublimation and advection-dispersion model suggest that summer snow events significantly affect ice stability. More realistic estimates of the effect of snow on the annual sublimation rates require field data on the timing and duration of snow cover, and the formation of snowmelt water and surface recharge of subsurface ice. The abundance of hydrated salts in dry soils and first measurements of contrasting water contents at different humidities strongly suggests that the role of salts in the storage and transport of H2O in cold, dry soils needs to be evaluated. This seems to be even more important as recent investigation on Mars indicate that the hydrological cycle on Mars may have been strongly influenced by dehydration reactions of sulfate salts.

Commercial fresh Mozzarella cheese is made by direct acidification and is stored dry or in water without salt addition. The cheese has a shelf life of 6wk, but usually develops an off-flavor and loses textural integrity by 4wk, potentially due to the lack of salt and high moisture that allow the outgrowth of undesirable bacteria. To understand how microbial incidence affects cheese quality and how incident pathogen-related bacteria are limited by salt level during refrigerated storage, we made fresh Mozzarella cheese with high (2%) and low (0.5%) salt. The high-salt cheese was packaged and stored dry. The low-salt cheese was packaged and stored either dry or in 0.5% salt brine. One portion of cheeses was evaluated for surviving incident microbes by aerobic plate counts, coliform counts, an...

Salinity is a major yield-reducing factor in coastal and arid irrigated rice production systems. Rice seedlings (Oryza sativa cv. Tarom Atri) were exposed to different NaCl concentrations for 8 days after germination. Plants height, fresh and dry weight, relative water content, pigment and carbohydrate content, photosynthetic efficiency and lipid peroxidase and antioxidant enzyme activity of rice seedlings grown under salt stress were investigated. Seedling grown under 25and 50 mM salt were shorter than the control. They could, however, develop their secondary leaves. Seedlings grown in the nutrient solution supplied with 100 and 200 mM extra salt could not develop their secondary leaves. Fresh weight ofseedlings grown under salt stress reduced up to 42.2% of the non-treated seed...

Poliovirus is a recognized surrogate for norovirus, pathogen in water and food, due to the structural and genetic similarity. Although radiation sensitivity of poliovirus in water or media had been reported, there has been no research in food model such as shellfish. In this study, oyster (Crassostrea gigas) was incubated in artificial seawater contaminated with poliovirus, and thus radiation sensitivity of poliovirus was determined in inoculated oyster. The effects of ionizing radiation on the sensitivity of poliovirus were also evaluated under different conditions such as pH (4-7) and salt concentration (1-15%) in culture broth, and temperature during irradiation. The D10 value of poliovirus in PBS buffer, virus culture broth and oyster was determined to 0.46, 2.84 and 2.94 kGy, respectively. The initial plaque forming unit (PFU) of poliovirus in culture broth was slightly decreased as the decrease of pH and the increase of salt concentration, but radiation sensitivity was not affected by pH and salt contents. However, radiation resistance of poliovirus was increased at frozen state. These results provide the basic information for the inactivation of pathogenic virus in foods by using irradiation.

A method is described for the recovery of fluoric compounding from waste gases by means of their absorption in a solution of salt-water or sodium, potash, or ammonia. The final processing of the solution with fluoric salts with known methods is distinguished by the goal of raising the level of absorption by using sodium, potash, or ammonia, in place of salt with concentrations of these elements ranging from 0.1 to 3.8%.

Aims/hypothesis In early type 1 diabetes mellitus, renal salt handling is dysregulated, so that the glomerular filtration rate becomes inversely proportional to salt intake. The salt paradox occurs in both humans and rats and, with low salt intake, results in diabetic hyperfiltration. We tested whether increased salt intake could reduce the susceptibility to injury of non-clipped kidneys in diabetic rats with pre-existing Goldblatt hypertension. Methods Male Long?Evans rats were made hypertensive and half were then made diabetic. Blood glucose was maintained at ?20?25?mmol/l by insulin implants. One half of each received only the salt in normal chow (1% by weight) and the other half received added salt in drinking water to equal 2.7% by weight of food intake. Weekly 24?h blood pressure rec...

Gobi deserts of the western region of Inner Mongolia are potential dust source area and a dominant source of soluble salts that are transported into eastern Asia and the western Pacific. Currently, the salt species, their emission magnitudes, and their spatial trends in this source area are poorly understood. In the present study, we used intact surface samples and wind tunnel experiments, combined with salt and particle size data, to estimate the spatial trends of ionic species and the contents of terrestrial-derived soluble salts in this region. The salt contents in the surface materials range between 0.28 and 14.78‰ (by mass). However, the salt contents in materials transported by the wind ranged between 1.55 and 16.95‰. In this region, the soluble salts in the PM50 and PM10 fractions ranging between 0.008 and 0.913‰ and between 0.004 and 0.583‰, respectively, with SO42 ? and Ca2+ contents far higher than those observed in previous studies in East Asia and the western Pacific. Areas with the highest salt emissions were located in the western Ala Shan Plateau and in southwestern Mongolia, and the contents decreased moving towards the southeastern Ala Shan Plateau. In addition, wind tunnel experiments showed that under wind velocities ranging from 8 to 22 m/s, the soluble salts ranged between 0.64 and 8.49%, with a mean of 3.45%. Given the significance of western Inner Mongolia for global dust emissions, the emissions of terrestrial-derived soluble salts from these areas should be carefully evaluated in future dust aerosol studies.

Salt-tolerant plants grow in a wide variety of saline habitats, from coastal regions, salt marshes and mudflats to inland deserts, salt flats and steppes. Halophytes living in these extreme environments have to deal with frequent changes in salinity level. This can be done by developing adaptive responses including the synthesis of several bioactive molecules. Consequently, several salt marsh plants have traditionally been used for medical, nutritional, and even artisanal purposes. Currently, an increasing interest is granted to these species because of their high content in bioactive compounds (primary and secondary metabolites) such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, carotenoids, vitamins, sterols, essential oils (terpenes), polysaccharides, glycosides, and phenolic compounds. These bioacti...

Research during 1988--1989 focused on several new aspects of the response of the salt marsh ecosystem to elevated CO{sub 2} of the effect of CO{sub 2} on biomass production into above and belowground tissues, nitrogen content, light response of photosynthesis of single leaves, leaf water potential and carbon dioxide and water vapor exchange between the plant canopy and the ambient air. Result from the work in 87 and 88 had shown that the C{sub 3} plant, Scirpus olneyi, responded vigorously to elevated CO{sub 2} but the two C{sub 4} species, Spartina patens and Distichlis spicata did not. The responses of photosynthesis were also reflected in the canopy and ecosystem processes: Carbon accumulated in the C{sub 3} community into belowground tissues but not in the C{sub 4} community suggesting that the main factor in the ecosystem responses would be photosynthesis and that the environmental controls on this process would determine the long-term ecosystem responses to rising CO{sub 2}. The main question at the outset of this project was: How much more carbon will be accumulated in the salt marsh ecosystem in a high CO{sub 2} atmosphere than is being accumulated under present CO{sub 2} concentration? This experiment has raised the possibility that rising CO{sub 2} will make the salt marsh ecosystem a bigger sink for carbon than we have previously thought it to be. By extrapolation, this finding suggests that other, terrestrial ecosystems may also become larger sinks for carbon.

Analysis of the geological structure and general facial situation of peat accumulation of the Donbass indicates the primary salinization of coals whose enrichment with salt occurred in the stage of the peat field from the sea water penetrating it. The main factors for desalinization of the coals are metamorphism and hydrogeological situation characterized by the presence of water exchange. Maps of salinity of coals in beds C/sub 1/ and C/sub 8//sup 1/ of the Novomoskovskiy field indicate the decrease in salinity to the east-northeast and make it possible to outline the boundary between the salt and nonsalt coals in the zone of articulation of Novomoskovskiy and West Pavlograd regions. The obtained correlation dependence of salinity on a number of geological factors can be used for approximate evaluation in the coal of the sodium content. What has been said makes it possible to hypothesize that practically all the coals in the Donbass were initially salinized. The salts accumulated in them were further leached out and removed because of the effect of desalinization factors. In a number of regions depending on specific geotectonic and hydrogeological conditions, the coals to a certain degree preserved their salinity.

Nitrate leaching beyond the root zone can increase water contamination hazards and decrease crop available N. Cover crops used in spite of fallow are an alternative to reduce nitrate contamination in the vadose zone, because reducing drainage and soil mineral N accumulation. Cover crops can improve important characteristics in irrigated land as water retention capacity or soil aggregate stability. However, increasing evapotranspiration and consequent drainage below the root system reduction, could lead to soil salt accumulation. Salinity affects more than 80 million ha of arable land in many areas of the world, and one of the principal causes for yield reduction and even land degradation in the Mediterranean region. Few studies dealt with both problems at the same time. Therefore, it is necessary a long-term evaluation of the potential effect on soil salinity and nitrate leaching, in order to ensure that potential disadvantages that could originate from soil salt accumulation are compensated with all advantages of cover cropping. A study of the soil salinity and nitrate leaching was conducted during 4 years in a semiarid irrigated agricultural area of Central Spain. Three treatments were studied during the intercropping period of maize (Zea mays L.): barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), vetch (Vicia villosa L.) and fallow. Cover crops were killed in March allowing seeding of maize of the entire trial in April, and all treatments were irrigated and fertilised following the same procedure. Before sowing, and after harvesting maize and cover crops, soil salt and nitrate accumulation was determined along the soil profile. Soil analysis was conducted at six depths every 0.20 m in each plot in samples from four 0 to 1.2-m depth holes dug. The electrical conductivity of the saturated paste extract and soil mineral nitrogen was measured in each soil sample. A numerical model based on the Richards water balance equation was applied in order to calculate drainage at 1.2 m depth, using daily soil water content measurements, based on calibrated capacitance probes. Our results showed that drainage during the irrigated period was minimized, because irrigation water was adjusted to crop needs, leading to soil salt and nitrate accumulation on the upper layers after maize harvest. Then, during the intercrop period, most of salt and nitrate leaching occurred. Cover crops use led to shorter drainage period, lower drainage water amount and lower nitrate and salt leaching than treatment with fallow. These effects were related with a larger nitrate accumulation in the upper layers of the soil after cover crop treatments. But there was not soil salt accumulation increase in treatments with cover crops, and even decreased after years with a large cover crop biomass production. Then, adoption of cover crops in this kind of irrigated cropping system reduced water drainage beyond the root zone, salt and nitrate leaching diminished as a consequence but did not lead to salt accumulation in the upper soil layers. Acknowledgements: Financial support by CICYT, Spain (ref. AGL2005-00163 and AGL 2011-24732) and Comunidad de Madrid (project AGRISOST, S2009/AGR-1630).

The storage of fresh water in the subsurface for later recovery and use (Aquifer Storage and Recovery) is becoming more and more important in the coming decades for seasonal or emergency storage, especially in the light of climate change and increasing population. However, fresh water storage in a saline subsurface poses a challenge: the initially vertical interface between injected fresh and native salt water is unstable and tends to rotate. The injected fresh water tends to float upward on top of native salt water, where it becomes hard or impossible to recover at a later stage. A wide body of literature exists about this buoyancy effect that is caused by the density difference between fresh and salt water. Yet, very few papers focus on solutions to this problem. In this paper we propose a storage principle to overcome this buoyancy problem by actually using the density difference to keep the fresh water in place, by combining salt water extraction and impermeable barriers. This technique seems promising and could solve many local fresh water storage problems. It is especially applicable in shallow water table aquifers for the storage of fresh water below parks and arable land or for seasonal storage of desalinated water. We performed laboratory-scale experiments and numerical modelling to study the dynamic behaviour of a fresh water bubble stored in saline subsurface using the technique of salt water extraction and impermeable barriers; including effects of operation dynamics, groundwater flow, and diffusion, dispersion and density differences.

The effect of varying salt (sodium chloride) addition levels of 0.50%, 1.25%, 1.80%, 2.25%, 2.50% and 3.00% (w/w) on the quality of Cheddar cheese was assessed. Reducing the salt adversely impacted Cheddar flavour and texture. The key compositional parameters of moisture-in-non-fat-substances and salt-in-moisture were most affected. Decreasing salt resulted in a concomitant reduction of pH, a slight reduction in buffering capacity and an increase in water activity and growth of starter and non-starter lactic acid bacteria that resulted in enhanced proteolysis. Lipolysis was not impacted by salt reduction. To produce quality reduced salt Cheddar cheese cognisance must be taken on how to reduce proteolysis, limit growth of NSLAB, reduce water activity, achieve pH 5.0-5.4 by modifications to ...

Fully updated and expanded into two volumes, the new edition of Groundwater Contamination explains in a comprehensive way the sources for groundwater contamination, the regulations governing it, and the technologies for abating it. Among the many new features of this edition are a full discussion of risk assessment, the preparation of groundwater protection plans, and references linking the text to over 2,300 water-related Web sites. The first volume covers all major contaminants and explains the hydrology and data used to determine the extent of pollution. Contents include: introduction; new materials and information in this second edition two volume series; groundwater as a resource, movement, usage, yield, contamination potential, disposal, stabilization, and historical aspects; the natural quality of water; natural quality of water and groundwater contamination; on-site liquid waste; disposal systems; description of systems; land disposal of solid wastes and groundwater contamination; municipal, industrial, oil field wastes, creosote, and their effects on groundwater; groundwater contamination due to agricultural wastes; contamination of groundwater from disposal and injection wells; other wells as sources of contamination; wells and solution mining; underground tanks and pipeline leakage; historical aspects; groundwater contamination by surface waters (including airports), atmospheric precipitation, salt, and salt intrusion; groundwater contamination in urban/suburban areas, including land surfaces, diversion of flow structures, by military toxics, and transportation.

SummaryProductivity of cereal crops is restricted in saline soils but may be improved by nitrogen nutrition. In this study, the effect of ionic nitrogen form on growth, mineral content, protein content and ammonium assimilation enzyme activities of barley (Hordeum vulgare cv. Alexis L.) irrigated with saline water, was determined. Leaf and tiller number as well as plant fresh and dry weights declined under salinity (120mM NaCl). In non-saline conditions, growth parameters were increased by application of NH4+/NO3- (25:75) compared to NO3- alone. Under saline conditions, application of NH4+/NO3- led to a reduction of the detrimental effects of salt on growth. Differences in growth between the two nitrogen regimes were not due to differences in photosynthesis. The NH4+/NO3- regime led to an ...

by drilling and causing horizontal faults by explosion, hydraulic fracturing, or leaching. ... leaves the ground, greatly lessening .... and the danger of contamination by salts dissolved in water. Also, alcohol fuel blends must be kept relatively dry ...

Hypertension is one of the major risk factors for cardiovascular disease, the prevention of which is acknowledged to be critically important. Human beings are the only animal species which consume large quantities of salt, and their consumption has increased with the advancement of civilization. Many observational and interventional epidemiologic studies have demonstrated that a high intake of salt results in elevation of blood pressure, and that a salt-reduced diet induces blood pressure reduction in patients with hypertension as well as in individuals with normal blood pressure. Reduced salt intake, blood pressure reduction, and a remarkable decrease in mortality due to stroke in Japan are important examples of this effect. A decrease in the mean blood pressure in an entire population can contribute significantly to decreased incidence of cardiovascular diseases. A population-based strategy for preventing hypertension, including a salt-reduced diet, is therefore desirable. Proposed measures include public health education by the mass media, reduced salt content in processed foods, salt reduction in foods served by schools or organizations and at restaurants, and labeling of salt content. Further studies are needed of population-wide salt reduction methods, and the effectiveness of such methods.   

Breass to natural rubber bonding used in radial tires and reinforced hoses reduces its water resistance when submerged in water. This paper describes the results of investigation of the effects of various factors on the deterioration and discussion on mechanisms of the deterioration by water, which are summarized as follows: The sulfenamide-based accelerators which release amine compounds during curing accelerate the deterioration by water, and the thiazole-based accelerators that do not release the compounds result in high water resistance. With little ZnO used, stearic acid accelerates the deterioration. Cobalt salts force the optimum sulfur addition weight to shift to higher side. Unpolished bress give the adherends inferior in water resistance. The higher the zinc content in the brass is, and the smaller the crystal size is, the adherends better in water resistance are given. It was found that the destruction has occurred in the surface layer as evidenced by the observation of the peeled face and the surface analysis. A hypothesis was presented from these results that the deterioration by water occurs from a function of the amine stress corrosion cracking mechanism. 30 refs., 12 figs., 5 tabs.

The wall paintings of Al Qurna in Egypt were studied by means of XRD and ICP-AES in order to determine their mineralogical and chemical composition, and to evaluate the impact of soluble salts on their deterioration, including the identification of the building materials and pigments used. Soluble salts analysis showed that NaCl is the most common soluble salt in the bedrock, ground water and surface water samples. The building materials are affected by the ground water, while the wall paintings in the area are affected by the Upper Egypt climatic conditions, which were studied in order to detect their role in the deterioration cycle in the area.

Water is becoming scarce resource throughout the world with the Mediterranean Sea basin as one of the most water limiting regions in the world. Desalinization and improving irrigation efficiency are two of the possibilities mentioned for decreasing water scarcity. In this presentation we will use Egypt as an example to explore the effect of improving field irrigation efficiencies. In Egypt and the economy with 83 million people entirely depends on the Nile of which 85% of the water originates in Ethiopia. The water in the Egypt is regulated by Lake Nasser smoothing out the runoff peaks to an even flow of approximately 0.16 BCM per day. This water is mainly used for irrigation, industrial and municipal uses. Approximately between 5.4 and 6 million ha are irrigated along the Nile and in the delta. Less than 20% of the Nile flow at the Aswan dam enters the Mediterranean Sea and is highly polluted. Irrigation practices in Egypt are highly inefficient with field efficiencies in the order of 70%. It has been suggested that increasing efficiencies will increase water availability down stream. In order to understand if this is possible, we considered the fate of the irrigation water. Part of the water applied to the field evaporates and the remaining water percolates downward and recharges the aquifer. The aquifer supplies base flow to the Nile and provides water for irrigation. Thus the only loss of the system is the evaporation from the crop in the field. Using this fact we can estimate the overall irrigation efficiency of the irrigation in the Nile. If we assume that 98% of the cultivated land are irrigated with an average evaporation rate of 1150 mm we find that the agricultural water use is at the same order as the water released at the Aswan dam. Assuming that all other uses are also conservative (i.e. use the water and return it back to the Nile with some pollution), we see that the overall use is over 100% during some years. This is not possible so not all land is double cropped and some are water short. Many estimates are available for the number of times that the water is reused in the Nile basin. From the simple calculations presented before we find that the reuse is a function of the irrigation efficiency. A field irrigation efficiency of 75 % can result in a reuse factor of four and is greater than any of the current estimates. In addition these calculations put into question if water allocated to Egypt decrease, improving field irrigation efficiency can increase the acreage that can be irrigated. Increasing production may only be achieved by increasing the yield per unit water evaporated. Finally, it is doubtful if the Nile outflow to the Mediterranean can be decreased because of salt contents in the drainage water of agricultural fields is greater than what can be used to grow agricultural crops. The salt content in the drainage water is still much less than that in the Mediterranean Sea and desalinization of this water will therefore be more economical then using the Mediterranean water. So in the future the Nile might become a closed basin in which all water is being used and only the salt enters the Mediterranean Sea.

The chemical composition of water in 44 lakes of the Kulunda steppe has been studied. It is shown that solute concentrations in different lakes vary from 1 to 390 g/l. Four chemical types of the water salinity?chloride, sulfate, chloride-sulfate with the presence of sodium bicarbonate, and sodic waters?are distinguished. The nature of the water alkalinity has been studied in 12 lakes. In the lakes with neutral chloride and sulfate salts, the total alkalinity does not exceed 16.56 meq/l. In the lakes with the presence of soda, it reaches 189 meq/l. In sodic waters, the total alkalinity varies from 600 to 1504.6 meq/l. In the latter case, the water alkalinity is conditioned by the presence of soda and borate salts. Salt minerals in the bottom sediments and in the salt crusts of solonchakous ...

Reduction of salt in ripened cheese presents an industry challenge due to its profound role in flavour and texture development. This study investigated the biochemical impact of varying the salt concentration in Cheddar cheese while maintaining the moisture content constant, with particular emphasis on proteolysis. Cheeses containing 0.9, 1.3, 1.8 and 2.4 % (w/w) salt and 37.7?±?0.2 % (w/w) moisture were manufactured by parallel adjustment of the curd grain size, cooking temperature and time, cheddaring, curd chip size and rate of salting and analysed over the course of 270 days ripening. Salt reduction affected chymosin and starter lactocepin activities to accelerate casein degradation and accumulate derived peptides at rates correlating positively or (mostly) inversely with salt concentr...

Eight cyclic aliphatic amines, pyrrolidine (Py), piperidine (Pp), morpholine (M), piperazine (Pz), and the N-hydroxyethyl (HE) analogues, were employed to prepare a salt with acidic diclofenac (D). These salts were examined by thermal [differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis, and hot-stage microscopy (HSM)] and spectroscopic [Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Raman, (1) H NMR, and ultraviolet] analysis. The results show the thermal instability of these salts: the thermal dissociation leaves the starting acidic D, evidenced by the FTIR and Raman spectra inside the molten mass of the salts with M and HEM. The nature of the salt with Pz (1:1 or 1:2) and HEPy (anhydrous or hydrate polymorph), but not for the salt with HEPz and Py, depends on the polarity of the solvent used for the preparation of the salt. Incomplete dehydration of the hydrate Py and Pz salts progressively modifies the thermogram profiles and originates false information. Melting of the salts with Pp, M, and HEM could be demonstrated by HSM, but not with DSC. The difficulty of providing a description of these salts in a simple way originates doubts on the utility of a wide application of aliphatic amines to prepare pharmaceutical salts with D, whose solubility in water does not significantly differ from that of the common sodium D. PMID:22234897

A unified chemico-atomic-emission method of monitoring trace elements has been developed, with the use of salts of pyrazolonearylmethane reagents as collectors. The combined method has been used to monitor the contents of trace elements in soils, soil extracts, vegetable matter, and waters; it is characterized by a low limits of the range of contents determined, n x 10/sup -6/-n x 10/sup -5/%, with a concentration factor of n x 10/sup 3/-n x 10/sup 4/, and s/sub r/ in the range 0.05-0.25. The limit of detection achieved permits determination of trace elements in substances of the biogeosphere, using domestically manufactured instruments with medium dispersion.

Proline (Pro) is one of the most accumulated osmolytes in salinity and water deficit conditions in plants. In the present study, we measured the Pro content, the activity and the expression level of delta 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS: gamma-glutamyl kinase, EC 2.7.2.11 and glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase, EC 1.2.1.41), a key regulatory enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of Pro, in cactus pear (Opuntia streptacantha) subjected to 6, 9 and 11 days of salt stress. Treatment with NaCl of O. streptacantha young plants resulted in a decrease in the cladode thickness and root length, and in a significant and gradual accumulation of Pro in young cladodes, in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. P5CS activity, studied as gamma-glutamyl kinase, was reduced at all times as a consequence of salt treatment, except at the sixth day at 75 and 150mM of NaCl, where a slight increase was observed. We isolated an open reading frame (ORF) fragment of p5cs gene. The deduced amino acid sequence of the P5CS protein exhibited 90.4% of identity with the P5CS protein from Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. RT-PCR analysis revealed that the Osp5cs gene of O. streptacantha was induced by salt stress at 9 and 11 days of treatment. Furthermore, ABA-induced Osp5cs gene expression was observed in cladodes of cactus pear young plants. We observed an evident correlation between the transcript up-regulation and the Pro accumulation under salt stress; however, these results do not parallel with the changes in P5CS enzymatic activity. This Pro accumulation might function as an osmolyte for the intracellular osmotic adjustment and might be playing a critical role in protecting photosynthetic activity in O. streptacantha plants under salt stress. PMID:18054243

The fundamental processes that control the amount of water sorbed by impure plutonium-containing materials after calcination are reviewed. Of particular interest is the amount of and rate of moisture sorption at 1000 PPMv (parts-per-million vapor; -3% RH at 25 'C) and 10,000 PPMv (32% RH at 25 'C). Pure plutonium oxide powders will remain below the 0.5 wt% criterion for packaging in the DOE 3013 Standard at both water vapor concentrations [I]. Deliquescent salts that have been observed in calcined materials by DOES Materials Identification and Surveillance (MIS) program will exceed the 0.5 wt% criterion at 10,000 PPMv and will meet that standard at 1,000 PPMv. Hydrated salts will exceed the 0.5 wt% criterion at all technologically achievable water vapor concentrations if allowed to reach equilibrium. Controlling the moisture availability by controlling the atmospheric content at 1000 PPM' and limiting the access to atmospheric moisture after stabilization through the use of a properly configured stabilization boat will minimize moisture uptake by these materials.

completely with water to generate lithium hydroxide. The resulting ..... borate was indicated by the fact that ether was liberated and could be removed by vacuum .... havior of compacted discs of calcium, magnesium, and sodium salts will be ...

A sodium carbonate salt transport system is required to support the Molten Salt Oxidation system being constructed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. We are embarking on a project to create a national test bed for evaluating mixed waste destruction technologies. This project is called the Mixed Waste Management Facility. It is currently in the second phase of design and will be operational in 1998. One of the first technologies demonstrated in this facility is Molten Salt Oxidation. Molten Salt Oxidation is a thermal process that destroys the organic constituents of mixed and hazardous wastes. Sodium carbonate salt is heated in a reactor vessel to approximately 950{degrees}C. Organic wastes, along with oxidant air, are injected under the pool of molten salt. A catalytic reaction occurs converting the organics into CO{sub 2} and water. Inorganic constituents in the salt such as metals, silica, alumina, and radionuclides remain captured in the salt. Chlorides in the waste feed are converted in the salt to sodium chloride. As these impurities build up in the salt, the salt must be recycled to remove them or else the reaction rate is reduced. Spent salt is periodically taken from the reactor and transported to a salt recycle system. In this system the molten salt is freeze-dried, dissolved in water, and filtered to remove the insoluble inorganics. The unconverted sodium carbonate is removed by fractional crystallization. This sodium carbonate is then dried and stored for future use in the reactors, eliminating a secondary waste stream. The remaining brine is disposed of as waste.

A great many laboratory investigations have shown that the water uptake in highly compacted MX-80 clay takes place by diffusion at low external pressure. It means that wetting of the clay buffer in the deposition holes of a KBS-3 repository is very slow if the water pressure is low and that complete water saturation can take several tens of years if the initial degree of water saturation of the buffer clay and the ability of the rock to give off water are low. It has therefore been asked whether injection of water can raise the degree of water saturation and if a high water pressure in the nearfield can have the same effect. The present report describes attempts to moisten highly compacted blocks of MX-80 clay with a dry density of 1510 kg/m{sup 3} by injecting water under a pressure of 650 kPa through a perforated injection pipe for 3 and 20 minutes, respectively. The interpretation was made by determining the water content of a number of samples located at different distances from the pipe. An attempt to interpret the pattern of distribution of injected uranium acetate solution showed that the channels into which the solution went became closed in a few minutes and that dispersion in the homogenized clay gave low U-concentrations. The result was that the water content increased from about 9 to about 11-12 % within a distance of about 1 centimeter from the injection pipe and to slightly more than 9 % at a distance of about 4-5 cm almost independently of the injection time. Complete water saturation corresponds to a water content of about 30 % and the wetting effect was hence small from a practical point of view. By use of microstructural models it can be shown that injected water enters only the widest channels that remain after the compaction and that these channels are quickly closed by expansion of the hydrating surrounding clay. Part of the particles that are thereby released become transported by the flowing water and cause clogging of the channels, which is another reason why the inflow ceases after a few minutes. It is estimated that a higher injection pressure, i.e. 2-3 MPa, should yield more effective wetting but that an injection time exceeding a few minutes will not improve it. Injection of a very salt solution is expected to be particularly effective.

NH4+ inhibition kinetics for CH4 oxidation were examined at near-atmospheric CH4 concentrations in three upland forest soils. Whether NH4+-independent salt effects could be neutralized by adding nonammoniacal salts to control samples in lieu of deionized water was also investigated. Because the leve...

In 50% (v/v) DMF– and DMA–H2O mixed solvents, salt effects on the solvolysis reaction rates of aliphatic halides and related compounds (RX) have been examined for further exploring. Compared with previous results obtained in other organic solvent systems, such as 50% (v/v) acetone–, 1,4-dioxane–, or sulfolane–H2O, no exceptional behavior was observed in the “pseudo” first-order rate constants (k/s?1) of all the typical SN1 and SN2 substrates by the addition of alkali metal and alkaline earth metal perchlorates or many kinds of tetraalkylammonium salts in 50% (v/v) DMF– and DMA–H2O mixed solvents. The detailed examination of ?log(k/s?1)/?[LiClO4] for 1-adamantyl bromide vs. the contents of organic solvents (CH3CN, DMA, and DMSO) suggested that the observed different salt effects were caused by the different solvation abilities of the solvents toward the leaving-group anion as well as the metal cation. As a new highlight in the present paper, we were able to demonstrate a proportionality or correlation between the LiClO4 effects in the solvolysis rates and the carbocation stabilities expressed by the Gibbs free energy values (?Go) of RX in the gas phase. Based on the Raman spectra of DMA–H2O and DMA–D2O as well as DMF–D2O mixed solvents, we discuss the distortion of the bulk water structure.   

The pilot-scale solar degradation of trimethoprim (TMP) in different water matrices (demineralized water: DW, simulated natural freshwater: SW; simulated wastewater: SWW; and real effluent: RE) was investigated in this study. DOC removal was lower in the case of SW compared to DW, which can be attributed to the presence of inorganic anions which may act as scavengers of the HO?. Furthermore, the presence of organic carbon and higher salt content in SWW and RE led to lower mineralization per dose of hydrogen peroxide compared to DW and SW. Toxicity assays in SWW and RE were also performed indicating that toxicity is attributed to the compounds present in RE and their by-products formed during solar Fenton treatment and not to the intermediates formed by the oxidation of TMP. A large number ...

Evaluation of the efficacy ofoxidants on the destruction of bisquartemary ammonium salts (BAS) in water demonstrated that the highest destruction effectiveness was achieved upon exposure to ozone (87%), potassium permanganate (68.2%), ultraviolet radiation (37.8%), by chlorination with gas chlorine (35.4%), lime chloride (24.1%), the least destruction was achieved by chlorination with sodium hypochlorite (21.9%). There was a more than 2-fold increase in the level of low-molecular impurities upon chlorine exposure of the water containing BAS as a result of transformation processes. In ozone treatment of BAS, unlike its chlorination, there was as high as 2-fold decrease in the concentration of C6-C9 alcohols present in their composition, giving rise to C6-C9 aldehydes (0.5%) and C6-C9 organic acids (as high as 3% of the mass content). PMID:18507166

A feasibility study was made for a salt gradient solar pond power plant in or near the Salton Sea of California. The conclusions support continuance 5-MWe proof-of-concept experiment, and ultimate construction by an electric utility company of a 600-MWe plant. The Solar Pond concept would be an environmental benefit to the Salton Sea by reversing the increasing salinity trend. The greatest cost drivers are the lake dike construction and pond sealing. Problems to be resolved include method of brine production from Salton Sea water for the first unit (which requires evaporation pond area and time), the high turbidity and color content of the Salton Sea water (which requires pretreatment), and other questions related to pond permeability, bio-activity and soil/brine chemical reactions. All technical and environmental problems appear solvable and/or manageable if care is taken in mitigating impacts.

Quaternary prodrug types of poorly water-soluble tertiary amines have been shown to exhibit significantly enhanced solubilities as compared to the parent amine. In the present study the combined effect of N-alkylation and salt formation to enhance aqueous solubility of tertiary amines have been investigated using bupivacaine as a model compound. X-ray structure analyses of selected salts were included to investigate the potential existence of correlations between salt solubility and crystal packing modes. Alkyl groups were methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl and the derivatives were isolated as their iodide salts. Chloride, mesylate, formate, acetate, glycolate, and tosylate salts were obtained by anion exchange of the N-methyl-bupivacaine derivative. N-Alkylation and salt formation afforded quaternary ammonium salts possessing pH-independent aqueous solubilities far exceeding that of the parent tertiary amine (up to a factor of 3200 at pH 8). A moderate reduction in solubility with increasing length of the alkyl chain was observed for the iodide salts of the N-alkylated bupivacaine derivatives. In case of the N-methyl-bupivacaine derivative variation of the counterion had a significant impact on the solubility with the iodide salt being 200 times less soluble than the chloride salt. X-ray analysis revealed that both the alkyl substituent and the anionic counterion influenced salt packing modes, however, in an unpredictable manner making establishment of quantitative correlations between crystal packing and solubility difficult even for a series of closely related derivatives.

Methods of solubility and refractometry at 25 deg C have been applied to state that systems boric acid-lithium (sodium, potassium) nitrite-water are simple eutonic type systems. Nitrites salt in the acid and their lyotropic effect increases from lithium salt to potassium salt. The disclosed succession in change of the effect is determined by the character of cation hydration in the medium the acidic reaction of which is conditioned by boric acid polymerization and partial oxidation of nitrite ion into nitrate ion. Boric acid is salted out from solutions containing lithium and sodium cations with increase of nitrate ion.

The sodium, potassium, and magnesium ion contents of Serratia marcescens and those of its salt-tolerant relative, S. marinoruba, were determined by atomic-absorption spectrometry. The intracellular K+ and Mg2+ contents of both microorganisms were found to be dependent on the ionic strength of the gr...

Allochthonous salt sheets in the northern Gulf of Mexico were emplaced as extrusive {open_quotes}salt glaciers{close_quotes} at the sediment-water interface. Massive dissolution was suppressed by a thin carapace of pelagic sediments. During emplacement, several hundred meters of bathymetric relief restricted rapid sedimentation to outside the glacial margins. The glaciers acted as sediment dams, influencing the transport and deposition of sediment from an upslope source. Because of contemporaneous sedimentation, the base of the glaciers climbed upward in all directions away from their feeder stocks, and successive sedimentary horizons were truncated against it. The local slope at the base of the sheets is equal to the local rate of sedimentation divided by the local rate of salt advance. Alternating episodes of slow and rapid sedimentation gave rise to a basal salt surface of alternating flats and ramps, which are preserved. Many salt sheets have nearly circular map patterns but are strongly asymmetric. Feeder stocks occur near upslope edges, and base-of-salt slopes are greater updip of the feeder. The asymmetry is due to more rapid sedimentation at the upslope edge and to slower advance induced by the smaller hydraulic head between the salt fountain and the upslope edge compared to the downslope edge. Rapid emplacement of the Mickey salt sheet (Mitchell dome) from a preexisting salt stock took {approximately}4 m.y, as {approximately}1 km of sediment was deposited. A three-dimensional geomechanical model for the rapid salt emplacement yields the following relationship for the diapir`s downdip radius versus time: R(t) {approx} Mt{sup q} {approx} B[({rho} - {rho}{sub w})gK{sup 3} / {eta}]{sup 1/8}t{sup q}, where M, q, b, and K are constants related to salt supply into the sheet, {rho} and {rho}{sub w} are the densities of salt water, g is the acceleration of gravity, {eta} is salt viscosity, and t is a model time extrapolated back to zero sheet volume at t = 0.

The atmospheric precipitation plays an important role in influencing the river chemistry of the Dongjiang River. The atmospheric contribution to river water is estimated by reference to Cl concentration called Clref. The Clref of 41.97 micromol/L represents the highest chloride concentration of the rainwater inputs to river water, thus sea salts are responsible for total Cl concentration of the Dongjiang River. According to the principal compositions of precipitation and river water, two approaches-sea salt correction and precipitation correction were proposed in order to correct the contribution proportions of atmospheric precipitation on the solutes and to calculate chemical weathering rate. The results reflected that the atmospheric contribution ratios fluctuate from approximately 5% to approximately 20% of TDS (total dissolved solids) in the Dongjiang River. As compared with the other world watersheds, the lower dissolved ion contents and high runoff may result in the obvious influence of precipitation on river chemistry in the Dongjiang basin. The major elemental chemistry is mainly controlled by silicate weathering, with the anion HCO3- and cation Ca2+ and Na+ dominating the major compositions in this basin. The estimated chemical weathering rate of 15.78-23.48 t/(km2 x a) is only 40%-60% of a global average in the Dongjiang basin. Certainly, the estimated results are still under correction gradually because the effect of human activities on the precipitation chemistry has never been quantified in detail. PMID:15272732

Copolymers of sodium 2-(acrylamido)-2-methylpropanesulfonate and N-dodecylmethacrylamide (C12MAm) undergo intrapolymer hydrophobic association in water, but depending on micellization procedures, the polymers may or may not form completely unimolecular micelles. Various protocols for the preparation of aqueous solutions of the polymers were examined to clarify how the polymers form preferentially unimolecular micelles. In solid polymer samples purified by reprecipitation followed by lyophilization, kinetically-frozen multimolecular micelles, formed by hydrophobic associations in entangled polymer chains during purification, may already exist. When a solid polymer sample is added to water, kinetically-frozen micelles are simply re-dissolved in water as such. Virtually unimolecular micelles were obtained when the solid sample was first dissolved in pure water at an elevated temperature (?90°C), followed by addition of salt at the same temperature. Micelles formed from the copolymers with C12MAm content ?40 mol% were not equilibrium micelles but kinetically-frozen. The micelles were not completely unimolecular. The number of polymer chains comprising a micelle increased with C12MAm content.   

A method is presented for recovering heavy water from uranium oxide-- heavy water slurries. The method consists in saturating such slurries with a potassium nitrate-sodium nitrate salt mixture and then allowing the self-heat of the slurry to raise its temperature to a point slightly in excess of 100 deg C, thus effecting complete evaporation of the free heavy water from the slurry. The temperature of the slurry is then allowed to reach 300 to 900 deg C causing fusion of the salt mixture and expulsion of the water of hydration. The uranium may be recovered from the fused salt mixture by treatment with water to leach the soluble salts away from the uranium-containing residue.

This work shows as specific methodology for the determination of dissolved oxygen in saline waters that allows to consider the variations of temperature and of concentration of salts. Both factors influence the solubility of the gases in water, making possible in place measurements, in bodies of water with content of salts unto of the concentration of sea water, with greater dependability. The mathematical models obtained are shown, the errors due to equipment, as well as the results obtained when applying this methodology in saline waters with diverse levels of contamination this allows to discern when the decrease of dissolved oxygen levels is due to an increase in the salinity or to an increase in the contamination of the water body. (Author) 7 refs.

A conceptually new salt bridge based on a hydrophobic room-temperature molten salt (ionic liquid) has been demonstrated to be a promising alternative to traditional salt bridges based on a concentrated aqueous KCl phase. 1-Methyl-3-octylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (C8mimC1C1N), which is immiscible with water and forms a liquid–liquid two-phase system, exhibits a stable phase-boundary potential when sandwiched by two aqueous electrolyte solutions. The phase-boundary potential between the interface is determined by the partition of C8mim+ and C1C1N? ions in the aqueous phase (W) and is little affected by the type of electrolytes and their concentrations in W, provided that ions dissolved in W are hydrophilic enough. The gelation of the molten salt phase does not affect the phase-boundary potential. The new salt bridge is free from most of the problems inherent to KCl-based salt bridges.