PurposeTo experimentally investigate the effect of the scan field of view (SFOV) selection and table height settings on the Computed Tomography Dose Index (CTDI) and the implications concerning patient effective and skin dose. MethodsAir-kerma length product (AKLP) measurements were carried out in a helical CT scanner using a pencil type dosimeter positioned in air and inside the holes of a head and a body phantom, using all available SFOV selections and different table height settings. Furthermore, using radiotherapy verification films placed on the CT table surface, the entrance surface air kerma (ESAK) profiles were derived with different SFOV and table height selections, both with and without a phantom on top of the films. ResultsThe AKLP is strongly dependent on the SFOV selection and...

Coefficients are given for the two-parameter Berger empirical formula fitted to air kerma and concrete kerma buildup factor data provided by Eisenhauer and Simmons (E--S). The fit is such as to minimize the maximum deviation of the resulting formula predictions from the basic E--S data. Comparison with similar work by others is provided.

This paper reports preliminary results of the two-dimensional discrete-ordinate, calculations for the air-over-ground transport of radiation from the Hiroshima and Nagasaki weapon devices. It was found that the gamma-ray kerma dominated the total kerma for both environments.

A method for the calibration of the output, in terms of air kerma rate, of the high activity miniature iridium 192 sources used in the Microselectron HDR afterloading unit is described. An air kerma rate is measured using a calibrated thimble chamber in an ''in-air'' calibration jig. Results are compared with an air kerma rate derived from the manufacturer's test certificate. In some cases, the ionization chamber measurements have been followed by a further calibration check using thermoluminescent dosimetry. Other checks carried out when a new source is received are also briefly described. (author).

Progress in radiation protection and radiotherapy, and the increased needs in terms of accuracy lead national metrology institutes to improve the standard. For ionizing radiation, the standard is defined by an absolute instrument used for air kerma rate measurement. The aim of the thesis is to establish standards, in terms of air kerma for X-rays beams of low and medium-energies. This work enables to complement the standard beam range of the Laboratoire National Henri Becquerel (LNHB). Two free-air chambers have been developed, WK06 for medium-energy and WK07 for low-energy. The air-kerma rate is corrected by several correction factors. Some are determined experimentally; and the others by using Monte Carlo simulations. The uncertainty budget of the air-kerma rate at one standard deviation has been established. These dosimetric standards were compared with those of counterparts' laboratories and are consistent in terms of degree of equivalence. (author)

Two dosimetric magnitudes, due to the dispersed radiation, have been determined during a mammography study. The magnitudes that were determined are the kerma at the entrance of the torso and the absorbed dose by the torso. This determination was made in a paraffin phantom and with thermoluminescent dosemeters. One of the important parameters in the radiological protection of a patient to which is practiced a mammography is the value of the media glandular dose. However, during the taking of the X-ray a radiation portion that impacts on the mammary gland it is dispersed toward the patient's torso. In this work thermoluminescent dosemeters of ZrO{sub 2} has been used to determine the kerma at the entrance of the torso like the absorbed dose. The dosemeters was placed on the surface of the torso phantom while to the mamma phantom was made the mammography. As mamma phantom was used glucose serum to 5%. Of the obtained results we find that 3% of the air kerma at the entrance of the mamma it corresponds at the air kerma that receives the torso and 3.2% of the media glandular dose it is the absorbed dose of the same one. Another important result is the percentage value of the air kerma on the entrance of the thyroid area during a mammography, due to the dispersed radiation, it is 4% of the kerma at the entrance of the mamma. The air kerma at the entrance of the thyroid is of 0.41 +-0.07 mGy, 10% of this value corresponds to the absorbed dose by the thyroid. Therefore, it is observed that the media glandular dose and the air kerma at the entrance of the mamma they influence on the dispersed radiation toward the torso. Also, the superior part of the torso has less attenuation capacity to the dispersed radiation that those located in the inferior part. Therefore, the thyroid receives the major quantity of air kerma at the entrance. (Author)

Abstract in portuguese OBJETIVO: Avaliar os fatores de técnica utilizados durante exames de tórax póstero-anterior em pacientes-padrão e correlacioná-los aos valores de kerma no ar na superfície de entrada e à qualidade das imagens clínicas. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: O estudo foi realizado em três hospitais do Rio de Janeiro, num total de cinco salas de raios X, com dez pacientes por sala. As imagens foram avaliadas pelos radiologistas dos serviços segundo o protocolo europeu. O kerma no (more) ar na superfície de entrada foi estimado a partir da curva de rendimento do equipamento de raios X, que foi obtida utilizando câmara de ionização acoplada a um eletrômetro. Análise de variância foi realizada para verificar se a diferença entre os valores de kerma no ar na superfície de entrada é significativa. RESULTADOS: Os valores de kerma no ar na superfície de entrada variaram entre 0,05 e 0,26 mGy, com média 60% inferior ao nível de referência publicado na Portaria 453. Das imagens avaliadas, 98% atenderam acima de 65% dos critérios de qualidade. CONCLUSÃO: Para um padrão de qualidade da imagem, aceitável para o diagnóstico, verificou-se ampla variação do kerma no ar na superfície de entrada para pacientes-padrão. Isto demonstra a falta de padronização dos fatores de técnica e a existência de um potencial de redução do valor do kerma no ar na superfície de entrada. Abstract in english OBJECTIVE: To evaluate technical factors involved in posteroanterior chest radiography in standard patients, and correlating them with entrance surface air kerma rate and with the clinical images quality. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The present study was developed at three hospitals in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, involving a total of five x-ray rooms, with ten patients per room. The images were evaluated by the radiologists of the institutions, in accordance with the European prot (more) ocol. The estimation of surface entrance air kerma rate was based on the x-ray equipment output curve obtained with an ionization chamber coupled with an electrometer. Variance analysis was performed to evaluate the significance of the difference between entrance surface air kerma rates. RESULTS: Entrance surface air kerma rates ranged between 0.05 and 0.26 mGy, with a mean value 60% lower than the reference level established by the Order (Portaria) 453. Among the images evaluated, 98% fulfilled > 65% of the images quality criteria. CONCLUSION: For a standard image quality that is acceptable for diagnosis purposes, a significant variation was observed in the entrance surface air kerma rate for standard patients, demonstrating the lack of technical factors standardization and a potential for decreasing the entrance surface air kerma rate.

Uncertainty estimates and cross correlations by range/survivor have been calculated for the Hiroshima and Nagasaki free-in-air (FIA) tissue kerma obtained from two-dimensional air/ground transport calculations. The uncertainties due to modeling parameter and basic nuclear transport data uncertainties were calculated for 700-, 1000-, and 1500-m ground ranges. Only the FIA tissue kerma due to initial radiation was treated in the analysis; the uncertainties associated with terrain and building shielding and phantom attenuation were not considered in this study. Uncertainties of --20% were obtained for the prompt neutron and secondary gamma kerma and 30% for the prompt gamma kerma at both cities. The uncertainties on the total prompt kerma at Hiroshima and Nagasaki are --18 and 15%, respectively. The estimated uncertainties vary only slightly by ground range and are fairly highly correlated. The total prompt kerma uncertainties are dominated by the secondary gamma uncertainties, which in turn are dominated by the modeling parameter uncertainties, particularly those associated with the weapon yield and radiation sources.

A method for determining half value layers (HVLs) of inverter-type X-ray equipment using a computed radiography (CR) systems was developed. This method is similar to the traditional method, where the air kerma (K) is measured using an ionization based dosimeter and increasing aluminum (Al) absorber thickness, but utilized an imaging plate (IP) and the sensitivity index (S number) of the CR system as the dosimeter and the dosimeter reading, respectively. The IP and the S number were calibrated using an ionization chamber having traceability to the National Standard Ionization Chamber. A modified version of the S number definition equation Formula Not Shown was used to translate the S number to K values for X-ray beams produced using tube voltages ranging from 50 to 120kV and additional Al f...

Abstract in portuguese OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste trabalho é o de estudar a otimização da qualidade da imagem fluoroscópica e a taxa de kerma no ar de entrada na superfície do paciente em procedimentos de radiologia intervencionista, utilizando-se de um objeto simulador adaptado para fluoroscopia. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Foi utilizado um objeto simulador desenvolvido para avaliação de imagens em radiologia convencional. O objeto simulador foi adaptado para fluoroscopia mediante incorporaç (more) ão de dois cateteres com diferentes espessuras, ambos utilizados em radiologia intervencionista. Os níveis de taxa de kerma no ar de entrada na superfície do paciente foram determinados utilizando-se este objeto simulador. RESULTADOS: A avaliação dos parâmetros técnicos para diversos modos de exposição de um equipamento fluoroscópico com digitalização de imagens permitiu estabelecer os indicadores de taxa de kerma no ar, que permitem a otimização da qualidade das imagens em procedimentos intervencionistas. A redução na taxa de kerma no ar de entrada na superfície do paciente pode chegar a 67%. CONCLUSÃO: A otimização da qualidade da imagem utilizando-se um objeto simulador possibilita reduzir a taxa de kerma no ar de entrada na superfície do paciente, sem perda considerável de informação diagnóstica. Abstract in english OBJECTIVE: The objective of the present study is to analyze the optimization of fluoroscopic image quality and patient entrance surface air kerma rate in interventional radiology procedures, utilizing a phantom adapted for fluoroscopy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The authors utilized a phantom developed for evaluating conventional radiological images adapted for fluoroscopy through the addition of two catheters with different diameters, both of them utilized in interventional (more) radiology. The patient entrance surface air kerma rate was determined with the aid of this phantom. RESULTS: The evaluation of technical parameters for different exposure modes of a digital fluoroscopic imaging system has allowed the determination of the air kerma rate, enabling the optimization of the image quality in interventional procedures. The decrease in the patient entrance surface air kerma rate may achieve 67%. CONCLUSION: The optimization of fluoroscopic image quality achieved with a phantom allows reducing the patient entrance surface air kerma with no significant loss of diagnostic performance.

The reference air kerma rate of an 192Ir high dose rate brachytherapy source is determined based broadly on the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) TECDOC 1274 code of practice. Since the primary standards dosimetry laboratory at the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) does not maintain a standard at 192Ir quality, the air kerma calibration coefficient of an IBA FC65-G Farmer type ionisation chamber is calculated using coefficients determined at 300?kV and 60Co qualities. The methodology proposed by Mainegra-Hing and Rogers [1] at 250?kV and 137Cs qualities is used. The validity of this approach is tested by performing Monte Carlo simulations to determine the chamber?s air kerma calibration coefficient at 192Ir quality. Very good agreement is obtained ...

The Calibration Laboratory of IPEN offers calibration services for portable radiation monitors using a Buchler gamma irradiator with {sup 137}Cs and {sup 60}Co radioactive sources. The beam dosimetry measurements are taken periodically between the source-instrument distances of 1 m and 4 m. The ISO 4037 standard (International Organization for Standardization) states that the air kerma rate due to scattered radiation shall not exceed 5% of that due to direct radiation. To verify if the facility was in accordance to the requirements, the evaluation of the scattered radiation was performed in this work. The air kerma rates were measured on the beam axis at various distances from the source up to 5.5 m, and the radiation attenuation curve was obtained. The air kerma rates were proportional within 5% of deviation to the inverse square law from the source centre to the detector centre, as required by the ISO 4037 standard. (authors)

Bayesian inference is used to determine the Air Kerma Rate based on in-situ gamma spectrum measurement performed with an NaI(Tl) scintillation detector. The procedure accounts for uncertainties in the measurement and in the mass energy transfer coefficients needed for the calculation. The WinBUGS program (Spiegelhalter et al., 1999) was used. The results show that the relative uncertainties in the Air Kerma estimate are of about 1%, and that the choice of unfolding procedure may lead to an estimate systematic error of 3%.

Abstract in portuguese OBJETIVO: Avaliar as exposições pediátricas de radiologia intervencionista em dois hospitais do Estado da Bahia, visando contribuir para a construção de um cenário estadual e nacional, possibilitando o conhecimento das exposições e da necessidade de sua otimização, visto que as peculiaridades que envolvem a radiologia e a pediatria se potencializam quando se trata de procedimentos de radiologia intervencionista, em razão das doses elevadas de radiação. MATERI (more) AIS E MÉTODOS: Foram avaliados 32 procedimentos em quatro salas nos dois principais hospitais que realizam procedimentos de radiologia intervencionista pediátrica na Bahia. Foram avaliados os valores de kerma no ar incidente e o produto kerma-área no ar de 27 procedimentos cardiológicos e 5 procedimentos cerebrais. RESULTADOS: Os valores máximos de produto kerma-área e kerma obtidos para procedimentos cardiológicos foram, respectivamente, 129,9 Gy.cm² e 947,0 mGy, e para procedimentos cerebrais, 83,3 Gy.cm² e 961,0 mGy. CONCLUSÃO: Os resultados deste estudo mostraram valores de exposições superiores em até 14 vezes os obtidos em estudos realizados em outros países, chegando próximos de resultados obtidos para procedimentos em adultos. Isto revela quão elevadas podem ser as exposições pediátricas, indicando a necessidade de constante otimização dos procedimentos e avaliação das exposições. Abstract in english OBJECTIVE: To evaluate pediatric radiation exposure in procedures of interventional radiology in two hospitals in the Bahia state, aiming at contributing to delineate the scenario at the state and national levels. The knowledge of exposure levels will allow an evaluation of the necessity of doses optimization, considering that peculiarities of radiology and pediatrics become even more significant in interventional radiology procedures which involve exposure to higher radi (more) ation doses. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 32 procedures were evaluated in four rooms of the two main hospitals performing pediatric interventional radiology procedures in the Bahia state. Air kerma rate and kerma-area product were evaluated in 27 interventional cardiac and 5 interventional brain procedures. RESULTS: Maximum values for air kerma rate and kerma-area product and air kerma obtained in cardiac procedures were, respectively, 129.9 Gy.cm² and 947.0 mGy; and, for brain procedures were 83.3 Gy.cm² and 961.0 mGy. CONCLUSION: The present study results showed exposure values up to 14 times higher than those found in other foreign studies, and approximating those found for procedures in adults. Such results demonstrate excessive exposure to radiation, indicating the need for constant procedures optimization and evaluation of exposure rates.

A CT-SD16 semiconductor detector was calibrated in terms of the computed tomography (CT) air kerma index for the integration length L = 100 mm, CK,PMMA,100, in the cylindrical CT head and body dosimetry phantoms using a DCT10 pencil ionization chamber as a reference instrument. Using IEC RQT 9 120-kV x-ray radiation quality and 25-62.5 mm nominal beam widths free in air, a CK,PMMA,100(DCT10)/CK,PMMA,100(CT-SD16) ratio of 0.97 was observed, while in the centre of 300 mm long CT head and body dosimetry phantoms, CK,PMMA,100(DCT10)/CK,PMMA,100(CT-SD16) ratios ranged from 1.02 to 1.09. Using IEC RQT 8-10 radiation qualities free in air, Monte Carlo simulated dose response characteristics of CT-SD16 and DCT10 were comparable with those obtained from the measurements. Simulations were also used to determine CK,PMMA,100(DCT10) in the centre of the CT head and body phantoms. At IEC RQT 9 and 25-62.5 mm nominal beam widths, the relative values of the simulated dose agreed with the measured values within 2-10% for the head and body phantoms, respectively. A kq correction factor between dose measurements in the phantom and free in air was determined for the model of DCT10 and for the real detectors using measured CK,PMMA,100 data. Simulations were performed using the EGSnrc CAVRZ code.

Abstract in portuguese OBJETIVO: Desenvolver uma câmara de ionização de placas paralelas de dupla face para determinação de kerma no ar e taxa de kerma no ar em campos de radiação-X utilizados em radiografia convencional e mamografia. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: A câmara desenvolvida tem janelas de entrada de poliéster aluminizado, elétrodos internos e anéis de guarda de alumínio em uma face (face A) e de grafite na outra (face G). Neste trabalho foram testadas as características operaci (more) onais de linearidade, dependência angular e energética de resposta. RESULTADOS: A linearidade de resposta foi de 0,86% para a face A e de 0,92% para a face G. Para ângulos de incidência da radiação de 0° a ± 5°, a variação da resposta relativa foi menor que 0,8% para ambas as faces da câmara. A dependência energética de resposta foi de 0,8% para a face A nas qualidades de raios-X para diagnóstico convencional e de 2,4% para a face G da câmara nas qualidades de raios-X para mamografia. CONCLUSÃO: Esta câmara pode ser utilizada rotineiramente na determinação de kerma no ar e taxa de kerma no ar em feixes de raios-X utilizados em radiografia convencional e mamografia. Abstract in english OBJECTIVE: To develop a double-faced plane-parallel ionization chamber for measurement of air kerma and air kerma rate in X-radiation fields utilized in conventional radiography and mammography. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The chamber has entrance windows made of aluminized polyester film, inner and guard electrodes of aluminum at one side (face A) and graphite at the other side (face G). The present study evaluated operational characteristics as regards response linearity, an (more) gular and energy dependence. RESULTS: The linearity of response was 0.86% for face A and 0.92% for face G. For radiation incidence angles, of 0° to ± 5°, the response variation was less than 0.8% for both faces of the chamber. The energy dependence of response was 0.8% for face A on X-ray qualities for conventional radiography, and 2.4% for the face G of the chamber on X-ray qualities for mammography. CONCLUSION: This chamber can be utilized on a routine basis for measurement of air kerma and air kerma rate in X-ray beams utilized in conventional radiography and mammography.

In this work the experimental results of the entrance exposition are shown and Kerma in air [mGy] in mamma obtained by irradiation of accreditation phantom of American College of Radiology (ACR). The irradiations were realized in a conventional mammography equipment of Hospital Juarez in Mexico; the technique used during the irradiations was of automatic exposition; the thickness for the phantom ACR obtained by the technique were of 4.2 and 4.5 cm; the kilo voltage pick was of 24 kV{sub p}, the time and the milli amperage per second variable. The measuring of Kerma in air was obtained with thermoluminescent dosemeters of solid state, of nano particles of zirconium dioxide prepared by the precipitation method. The dosemeters were homogenized previously in low energies of X-rays that are those used for mammography. The thermoluminescent dosemeters of ZrO{sub 2} were calibrated by means of an ionization chamber for different expositions. The calibration curve is reported for the exposition and Kerma in air against thermoluminescent intensity obtained by reading of thermoluminescent dosemeters of ZrO{sub 2}, as well as the technique employee for the Kerma determination in air and entrance exposition in mamma. (Author)

This paper presents pre-sampling modulation transfer function (MTF), normalized noise power spectrum (NNPS) and detective quantum efficiency (DQE) results for an amorphous selenium (a-Se) full field digital mammography system. MTF was calculated from the image of an angled 0.5 mm thick Cu edge, acquired without additional beam filtration. NNPS data were acquired at detector air-kerma levels ranging from 9.1 µGy to 331 µGy, using a standard mammography x-ray spectrum of 28 kV, Mo/Mo target/filter combination and 4 cm of PMMA additional filtration. Prior to NNPS estimation, the image statistics were assessed using a variance image. This method was able to easily identify a detector artefact and should prove useful in routine quality assurance (QA) measurements. Detector DQE, calculated from the NNPS and MTF data, dropped to 0.3 for low detector air-kerma settings but reached an approximately constant value of 0.6 above 50 µGy at the detector. Subjective image quality data were also obtained at these detector air-kerma settings using the CDMAM contrast-detail (c-d) test object. The c-d data reflected the trend seen in DQE, with threshold contrast increasing at low detector air-kerma values. The c-d data were then compared against predictions made using two established models, the Rose model and a standard signal detection theory model. Using DQE(0), the Rose model gave results within approximately 15% on average for all the detector air-kerma values studied and for detail diameters down to 0.2 mm. Similar agreement was also found between the measured c-d data and the signal detection theory results, which were calculated using an ideal human visual response function and a system magnification of unity. The use of full spatial frequency DQE improved the agreement between the calculated and observer results for detail sizes below 0.13 mm.

Measurements were carried out for calibration and performance testing of a set of 10 electronic personal dosimeters (EPDs) at the Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory of Sudan. Calibrations were carried out at three X-ray beam qualities described in ISO standard 4037 in addition to {sup 137}Cs and {sup 60}Co gamma ray beams. The experimental was performed with EPDs mounted on ICRU Slab phantom. X-ray and {gamma}-ray beams were characterized in terms of air kerma free-in-air which were converted to the known delivered personal dose equivalent, H{sub p}(10) using appropriate the air kerma to personal dose equivalent conversion coefficients. Dosimeters tested showed excellent energy and angular response and relative error of indication within the recommended limit for photon energies from 65 keV to 1.25 MeV. The study showed encouraging results for using electronic dosimeters in personal dosimetry.

In Germany, an expert group of physicians and medical physicists was installed under the leadership of the Federal Office for Radiation Protection for the establishment and application of reference dose levels for patients involved in X ray diagnostic and diagnostic nuclear medicine applications. Up to now the following results have been obtained. (1) Reference levels should be established for frequent and for dose intensive examinations and should have an educational effect on physicians and radiographers concerning the optimisation of radiation protection. (2) They should apply to an easily measured quantity, which is available for the medical staff during the examination. (3) Dose measurements performed on standard patients or on a large number of non-selected patients and in line with the Guidelines of the German Federal Medical Board will be the basis for radiographic reference levels. Phantom measurements should be done in mammography and computed tomography (CT). (4) As different measured quantities are required for different types of examinations, the entrance surface dose (ESD) or the dose-area product (DAP) are proposed for radiography, the DAP for complex examinations including fluoroscopy, the entrance surface air kerma (ESAK) at the standard breast phantom for mammography and finally the weighted computed tomography dose index (CTDI{sub w}) and the dose length product (DLP) for CT examinations. Details referring to the collection of data and to the control of reference dose values are reported. (author)

At present there are no specific primary standards for 192Ir high dose rate sources used in brachytherapy. Traceability to primary standards is guaranteed through the method recommended by the AAPM that derives the air kerma calibration factor for the 192Ir gamma rays as the average of the air kerma calibration factors for x-rays and 137Cs gamma-rays or the Maréchal et al. method that uses the energy-weighted air kerma calibration factors for 250 kV x rays and 60Co gamma rays as the air kerma calibration factor for the 192Ir gamma rays. In order to use these methods, it is necessary to use the same buildup cap for all energies and the appropriate wall correction factor for each chamber. This work describes experimental work used to derive the A(W) for four different ionization chambers and different buildup cap materials for the three energies involved in the Maréchal et al. method. The A(W) for the two most common ionization chambers used in hospitals, the Farmer NE 2571 and PTW N30001 is 0.995 and 0.997, respectively, for 250 kV x rays, 0.982 and 0.985 for 192Ir gamma rays, and 0.979 and 0.991 for 60Co gamma rays, all for a PMMA build-up cap of 0.550 gm cm(-2). A comparison between the experimental values and Monte Carlo calculations shows an agreement better than 0.9%. Availability of the A(W) correction factors for all commercial chambers allows users of the in-air calibration jig, provided by the manufacturer, to alternatively use the Maréchal et al. method. Calibration laboratories may also used this method for calibration of a well-type ionization chamber with a comparable accuracy to the AAPM method. PMID:11833542

Various radiation detectors including electronic personal emergency radiation detectors (PERDs), radiochromic film cards and thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) were used to validate a subset of the radiological test requirements listed in the American National Standards Institute/The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (ANSI/IEEE) N42.49 standard. The subset of tests included the following: comparing the readout of the detectors with the value given at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST); testing of the alarm settings (when applicable) in air-kerma (or exposure) and air-kerma rate (or exposure rate) mode; and investigating the effect of testing the detectors mounted on a phantom and free in air. The purpose of this work was not to test the performance of the sample of detectors used. Instead, the detectors were used to validate the requirements of the written standard being developed. For this purpose, the performance and response of these instruments were recorded when placed in (137)Cs, and x-ray beams at different air-kerma rates and test conditions. The measurements described in this report were performed at the NIST x-ray and gamma-ray radiation calibration facilities. The data in this report provide a benchmark in support of the development of the ANSI/IEEE N42.49 standard. PMID:20220367

An indirect comparison of the standards for air kerma of the Dutch Metrology Institute (VSL), The Netherlands, and of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) was carried out in the {sup 60}Co radiation beam of the BIPM in September 2005. The comparison result, based on the calibration coefficients for three transfer standards and expressed as a ratio of the VSL and the BIPM standards for air kerma, is 0.9985 with a combined standard uncertainty of 2.2 * 10{sup -3}. The latest result agrees with the result of the previous comparison in {sup 60}Co {gamma} rays, made in 1996 and updated for recent changes made to the standards to give a value of 0.9982(37). The degrees of equivalence between the VSL and the other participants in the key comparison BIPM.RI(I)-K1 have been calculated and the results are presented in the form of a matrix. A graphical presentation is also given. (authors)

The purpose of this paper is to calculate values of BSF in water and comparison with data on air 11SF found in the literature. For this simulations have been performed by the Monte Carlo method for calculating values ??kerma water in the presence of a manikin of this material and in the absence thereof. The simulations were performed for monoenergetic beams in order to facilitate the calculation of the BSF for any spectral distribution of those found in the field of radiology.

Using a combination of an X-ray generator installed in radiation calibration laboratory of Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) and a series of 8 radiators and filters described in ISO-4037, monoenergetic fluorescent X-rays from 8.6 keV to 75 keV were produced. This fluorescent X-rays generated by primary X-rays from radiator were discriminated K{sub {beta}} lines with the aid of filter material and the only K{sub {alpha}} X-rays were analyzed with the high purity Ge detector and portable MCA. The air kerma rates were measured with the 35 cc ionization chamber and compared with the calculational results, and the beam uniformity and the scattered effects of radiation fields were also measured. The beam purities were more than 90% for the energy range of 8.6 keV to 75 keV and the air kerma rates were from 1.91 mGy/h (radiator: Au, filter:W) to 54.2 mGy (radiator:Mo, filter; Zr) at 43 cm from center of the radiator. The effective area of beam at the measurement point of air kerma rates was 12 cm X 12 cm and the influence of scattered radiation was less than 3%. The fluorescent X-rays established in this study could be used for the determination of energy response of the radiation measurement devices and the personal dosemeters in low photon energy regions.

The practice of Brachytherapy with Iridium-192 sources of low dose rate (0.4 - 0.8 Gy/h) is a technique used in the treatment of diverse illnesses. in this work the preparation, quality control and calibration are presented in terms of kerma in air of Iridium-192 using as target these recycled Iridium-Platinum wires. The targets were obtained as decayed sources of different radio therapeutical centers in the country and they were characterized by Scanning electron microscopy in order to determine their chemical composition. Subsequently it was developed an experimental design to establish the effect of neutron flux, geometrical array and irradiation time over the activity and percentage of the sources homogeneity. The homogeneity was determined by auto radiography and by Gamma spectroscopy. Once the optimal irradiation conditions were established, it is determined the apparent activity and kerma in air using a well type ionization chamber with traceability to a primary laboratory. Iridium-192 sources were obtained with an average homogeneity 96 %, apparent activity 282.129 {+-} 0.531 M Bq and kerma in air 0.03200 {+-} 0.00006 m Gy m/h A. (Author)

Different methods exist to determine the air kerma calibration factor of an ionization chamber for the spectrum of a {sup 192}Ir high-dose-rate (HDR) or pulsed-dose-rate (PDR) source. An analysis of two methods to obtain such a calibration factor was performed: (i) the method recommended by [Goetsch et al., Med. Phys. 18, 462-467 (1991)] and (ii) the method employed by the Dutch national standards institute NMi [Petersen et al., Report S-EI-94.01 (NMi, Delft, The Netherlands, 1994)]. This analysis showed a systematic difference on the order of 1% in the determination of the strength of {sup 192}Ir HDR and PDR sources depending on the method used for determining the air kerma calibration factor. The definitive significance of the difference between these methods can only be addressed after performing an accurate analysis of the associated uncertainties. For an NE 2561 (or equivalent) ionization chamber and an in-air jig, a typical uncertainty budget of 0.94% was found with the NMi method. The largest contribution in the type-B uncertainty is the uncertainty in the air kerma calibration factor for isotope i, N{sub k}{sup i}, as determined by the primary or secondary standards laboratories. This uncertainty is dominated by the uncertainties in the physical constants for the average mass-energy absorption coefficient ratio and the stopping power ratios. This means that it is not foreseeable that the standards laboratories can decrease the uncertainty in the air kerma calibration factors for ionization chambers in the short term. When the results of the determination of the {sup 192}Ir reference air kerma rates in, e.g., different institutes are compared, the uncertainties in the physical constants are the same. To compare the applied techniques, the ratio of the results can be judged by leaving out the uncertainties due to these physical constants. In that case an uncertainty budget of 0.40% (coverage factor=2) should be taken into account. Due to the differences in approach between the method used by NMi and the method recommended by Goetsch et al., an extra type-B uncertainty of 0.9% (k=1) has to be taken into account when the method of Goetsch et al. is applied. Compared to the uncertainty of 1% (k=2) found for the air calibration of {sup 192}Ir, the difference of 0.9% found is significant.

Thr free air is the well recognized as the primary standard for the measurement of kerma in the air due to his characteristics to perform the absolute measurements of that entity according to definitions. Therefore, the Institute for Radioprotection and dosimetry - IRD, Brazil used for his implantation a free air cylindrical ionization chamber. Initially, a mechanical characterization was performed for verification as a primary standard. This paper will proceed a full detailed description the point operation of 2000 V found for that chamber and her saturation coefficient.

Our aim is to compare the radiation dose associated with a low-dose CT colonography (CTC) protocol for colorectal cancer screening with that delivered by double-contrast barium enema (DCBE). CTC of twenty asymptomatic individuals (M:F?=?10:10) participating to a colorectal cancer screening program and DCBE of fifteen patients (M:F?=?6:9) were evaluated. For CTC, absorbed dose was determined by calculating the dose-length product for each CTC examination from measurements on a CT dose phantom equipped with a CT ion chamber. For DCBE, the free-in-air Kerma at the patient?s X-ray entry surface and the Kerma-area product during fluoroscopy and fluorography were measured with a Barracuda system, with fluoroscopy times being recorded blinded to the performing operator. Effective dose at CTC was ...

Abstract in portuguese Este estudo avaliou a redução da taxa de kerma no ar, o espectro de energia dos raios X e alterações na qualidade da imagem radiográfica. Comparações com várias espessuras do filtro de liga de alumínio-cobre em três diferentes porcentagens foram feitas com o filtro de alumínio. Os experimentos foram feitos utilizando-se um aparelho de raios X odontológico convencional, obtendo radiografias com auxílio de um fantoma de segmento de mandíbula e de uma escala de (more) densidade confeccionada com alumínio laminado. Dependendo da espessura da filtração da liga de alumínio-cobre, o feixe de raios X pôde ser endurecido em relação ao filtro de alumínio. O uso do filtro de liga de alumínio-cobre resultou em 8,40% a 47,33% de redução da taxa média de kerma no ar e indicou contraste da imagem radiográfica sem alteração, quando comparado com a filtração de alumínio, mostrando que os filtros de liga de alumínio-cobre tornam-se alternativas aceitáveis em relação aos filtros de alumínio. Abstract in english This study evaluated the performance of aluminum-copper alloy filtration, without the original aluminum filter, for dental radiography in terms of x-ray energy spectrum, air kerma rate and image quality. Comparisons of various thicknesses of aluminum-copper alloy in three different percentages were made with aluminum filtration. Tests were conducted on an intra-oral dental x-ray machine and were made on mandible phantom and on step-wedge. Depending on the thickness of alu (more) minum-copper alloy filtration, the beam could be hardened and filtrated. The use of the aluminum-copper alloy filter resulted in reductions in air kerma rate from 8.40% to 47.33%, and indicated the same image contrast when compared to aluminum filtration. Aluminum-copper alloy filtration may be considered a good alternative to aluminum filtration.

Analyses of the radiation effects in the survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki have employed the Tentative 1965 Dose Estimation (T65D). Revised dose estimates calculated using computer radiation transport codes and reassessed radiation outputs from the weapons show major differences from T65D in the values of tissue kerma in air, both for the neutron and gamma radiation fields. These differences are more significant for the Hiroshima bomb. The bases for the T65D calculations and the recent evaluations of Loewe and Mendelsohn and Pace and Scott are outlined with a discussion of the reasons for the different values of tissue kerma obtained. A brief discussion is included of the basis of T65D 'transmission factors' and of tissue kerma to organ dose conversion factors, together with suggested changes that may be required. It is concluded that it would be premature to attempt re-analyses of observed effects until such time that the revision of dose estimation is completed. This revision is expected to last two years and will include reassessments of individual shielding factors and organ dose calculations.

Among the quantities used for dose specification in mammography the average absorbed dose in glandular tissue is most appropriate for risk assessments. Generally, average absorbed dose in glandular tissue is derived from measurement of air kerma free-in-air combined with conversion factors obtained from radiation transport calculations in mathematical breast models. Air kerma to glandular tissue dose conversion factors are published by various authors as a function of half-value layer (HVL) for simple breast phantoms. Calculations by different authors differ in radiation transport codes, photon interaction data, photon spectra, composition and thickness of superficial layer (representing skin and subcutaneous adipose tissue), presence of compression plate, and are not performed with the tissue compositions recommended by the ICRU. Protocols for dosimetry in mammography in different European countries (UK, Netherlands, Sweden) use results from different authors. To study the influence of the parameters indicated, air kerma to glandular tissue dose conversion factors, g, are calculated using the MCNP radiation transport code. Use of different spectra can cause differences in g values up to about 7%. The use of a compression plate results in a 4.5 {+-} 1.5% smaller g value for the same HVL. The use of MCPLIB cross sections results in 10% higher g values compared to the use of XCOM data. The influence of the backscatter material (composition and thickness) on the g value is marginal (< 1%). The different superficial layers used result in differences in g values of up to 19%. When the breast thickness is changed from 2 cm to 8 cm, g values decrease by a factor of about 4. Employing Hammerstein`s tissue compositions compared to those from the ICRU results in differences in g values up to about 14%. (Author).

The accuracy and traceability of the calibration of radiotherapy dosimeters is of great concern to those involved in the delivery of radiotherapy. It has been proposed that calibration should be carried out directly in terms of absorbed dose to water, instead of using the conventional and widely applied quantity of air kerma. In this study, the faithfulness in disseminating standards of both air kerma and absorbed dose to water were evaluated, through comparison of both types of calibration for three types of commonly used radiotherapy dosimeters at {sup 60}Co gamma beams at a few secondary and primary standard dosimetry laboratories (SSDLs and PSDLs). A supplementary aim was to demonstrate the impact which the change in the method of calibration would have on clinical dose measurements at the reference point. Within the estimated uncertainties, both the air kerma and absorbed dose to water calibration factors obtained at different laboratories were regarded as consistent. As might be expected, between the SSDLs traceable to the same PSDL the observed differences were smaller (less than 0.5%) than between PSDLs or SSDLs traceable to different PSDLs (up to 1.5%). This can mainly be attributed to the reported differences between the primary standards. The calibration factors obtained by the two methods differed by up to about 1.5% depending on the primary standards involved and on the parameters of calculation used for {sup 60}Co gamma radiation. It is concluded that this discrepancy should be settled before the new method of calibration at {sup 60}Co gamma beams in terms of absorbed dose to water is taken into routine use. (author)

A comparison of the standards of air kerma of the Savezni Zavod za Mere i Dragocene Metale (SZMDM) and of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) has been carried out in {sup 60}Co radiation. It shows that the SZMDM and BIPM standards differ by 0.79 % with a relative standard uncertainty of 1.8 x 10{sup -3}. This result is compatible with the previous comparison of 1991 when the changes in the corrections for the wall effect and for axial non-uniformity of the SZMDM standard are taken into account. (authors)

The angular distribution of photon energy spectra emitted from an I-125 brachytherapy source was measured using a specially designed jig in the range of ±70° in the plane of the long axis of the source. It is important to investigate the angular dependence of photon emissions from these sources for the calibration of the air kerma rate. The results show that the influence of the distributions between 0° and ±8° is small enough to allow a calibration using current primary instruments which have a large entrance window. PMID:22417698

The Radiological Science Laboratory is implanting a service for calibration of well type chambers by IAEA training program. The kerma rate in the air (mu Gy/h) of the linear Cs-137 reference source CDCS-J4 have been determined using a well type chamber Standard Imaging HDR-1000 model, which have been calibrated at Secondary Standard Laboratory Calibration of IAEA, whereas two HDR-1000 Plus chambers were calibrated too, following the same standards. The results were compared with Wisconsin University calibration certification and has demonstrated that well type ionization chamber calibration can be used in brachytherapy for several kinds of radionuclides. (Author)

The Monte Carlo method was used to calculate the efficiency, escape and Compton curves of a planar high-purity germanium detector (HPGe) in the 20-150 keV energy. These curves were used for the determination of photons spectra produced by an X-ray machine in order to allow a precise characterization of photon beams applied to medical diagnosis. The detector was modeled with the MCNP5 computer code and validated by comparison with experimental data. The air kerma calculated after the spectra stripping was compared with ionization chamber measurements.

Low-intensity radioactive sources emitting low-energy photons are used in the clinic for low dose-rate brachytherapy treatments of tumours. The dosimetry of these sources is based on reference air kerma rate measurements. The absorbed dose rate to water at the reference depth d0 = 1 cm, \\dot {D}_{w,1\\,cm} , is then obtained by a conversion procedure with a large relative standard uncertainty of about 5%. This paper describes a primary standard developed at ENEA-INMRI to directly measure \\dot {D}_{w,1\\,cm} due to LDR sources. The standard is based on a large-angle and variable-volume ionization chamber, embedded in a graphite phantom and operating under ‘wall-less air chamber’ conditions. A set of correction and conversion factors, based on experiments and Monte Carlo simulations, are determined to obtain the value of Dw,1 cm from measurements of increment of ionization current with increasing chamber volume. The relative standard uncertainty on \\dot {D}_{w,1\\,cm} is 2.6%, which is appreciably lower than the current uncertainty. Characteristics of the standard, its associated uncertainty budget, and some experimental results are given for 125I BEBIG I25.S16.C brachytherapy seeds. Finally, results of the experimental determination of the dose-rate constant ?1 cm, traceable to the Dw,1 cm and the low-energy air kerma ENEA-INMRI standards, are given. The relative standard uncertainty on ?1 cm is 2.9%, appreciably lower than the typical uncertainty (4.8%) of the values available in the literature.

Two sets of quantities are import in radiological protection: the protection and operational quantities. Both sets can be related to basic physical quantities such as kerma through conversion coefficients. For diagnostic x-ray beams the conversion coefficients and backscatter factors have not been determined yet, those parameters are need for calibrating dosimeters that will be used to determine the personal dose equivalent or the entrance skin dose. Conversion coefficients between air kerma and personal dose equivalent and backscatter factors were experimentally determined for the diagnostic x-ray qualities RQR and RQA recommended by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The air kerma in the phantom and the mean energy of the spectrum were measured for such purpose. Harshaw LiF-100H thermoluminescent dosemeters (TLD) were used for measurements after being calibrated against an 180 cm{sup 3} Radcal Corporation ionization chamber traceable to a reference laboratory. A 300 mm x 300 mm x 150 mm polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) slab phantom was used for deep-dose measurements. Tl dosemeters were placed in the central axis of the x-ray beam at 5, 10, 15, 25 and 35 mm depth in the phantom upstream the beam direction Another required parameter for determining the conversion coefficients from was the mean energy of the x-ray spectrum. The spectroscopy of x-ray beams was done with a CdTe semiconductor detector that was calibrated with {sup 133} Ba, {sup 241} Am and {sup 57} Co radiation sources. Measurements of the x-ray spectra were carried out for all RQR and RQA IEC qualities. Corrections due to the detector intrinsic efficiency, total energy absorption, escape fraction of the characteristic x-rays, Compton effect and attenuation in the detector were done aiming an the accurate determination of the mean energy. Measured x-ray spectra were corrected with the stripping method by using these response functions. The typical combined standard uncertainties of conversion coefficients and backscatter factors were 12% and 6% respectively. (author)

Abstract in portuguese OBJETIVO: Apresentar uma ferramenta de análise de dados que pode ser utilizada para proteção de pacientes e trabalhadores em áreas de uso de equipamentos móveis. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Foi desenvolvida uma ferramenta, em planilha ativa Excel®, que utiliza medidas de exposição para gerar um banco de dados de fatores de forma e calcular o kerma no ar ao entorno de um leito. O banco de dados inicial foi coletado com três equipamentos móveis. Um espalhador não antro (more) pomórfico foi utilizado, sendo realizadas medidas de exposição em uma malha de (4,2 × 4,2) m², ao passo de 0,3 m. RESULTADOS: A ferramenta calcula o kerma no ar (associado à exposição de pacientes expostos e ao equivalente de dose ambiente) à radiação secundária. Para distâncias inferiores a 60,0 cm, valores acima do limite máximo de equivalente de dose ambiente definido para área livre (0,5 mSv/ano) foram verificados. Os dados coletados a 2,1 m foram sempre inferiores a 12% do referido limite. CONCLUSÃO: A ferramenta é capaz de auxiliar na proteção radiológica de pacientes e trabalhadores, quando associada à coleta de dados adequada, pois possibilita a determinação de áreas livres ao entorno de leitos em áreas onde equipamentos móveis geradores de radiação X são utilizados. Abstract in english OBJECTIVE: To present a data analysis toolkit that may be utilized with the purpose of radiation protection of hospital inpatients and workers in areas where mobile apparatuses are used. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An Excel® ActiveSheet was utilized to develop a computational toolkit with exposure measurements to generate a database of shape factors and to calculate the air kerma around hospital beds. The initial database included data collected with three mobile apparatuses. (more) A non-anthropomorphic phantom was utilized and exposure measurements were performed on a (4.2 × 4.2) m² mesh-grid at 0.3 m steps. RESULTS: The toolkit calculates the air kerma (associated with patients' radiation exposure and with ambient equivalent dose) under secondary radiation. For distances lower than 60.0 cm, values above the maximum ambient equivalent dose threshold defined for radiation free areas (0.5 mSv/year) were verified. Data collected at 2.1 m have always presented values lower than 12% of that threshold. CONCLUSION: The toolkit can aid in the radiological protection of patients and workers, provided it is combined with appropriate data collection, since it allows the determination of radiation free areas around beds in rooms where mobile X-ray apparatuses are utilized.

Fluoroscopy is a special radiological examination that uses radiation to visualize the image directly in a TV monitor. Due to of the large exposure times, these procedures often give high doses to the patient, usually higher than those from conventional radiology. Since there are not international diagnostic references levels for fluoroscopy procedures, this research had the objective of making the first study of the fluoroscopy procedures in the Northeast Region of Brazil, providing, therefore, data for the implementation of diagnostic reference levels. Three institutions were evaluated in Recife, two of them teaching hospitals. The quantities measured were the air kerma-area-product, the screening time and the number of radiographs taken in each exam. The results show that the value of the air kerma-area-product varied among the institutions and the results in the institution which uses the last generation equipment were better than those obtained in the other institutions. A relevant fact, and also alarming, is that the population in the institutions that showed the worse results are children. The results obtained in these institutions are higher than those observed in other countries. The results of this research show that there is a need for optimization in those procedures, specially the ones that involve older equipment. It is also points to the continuity of this study to gather more information to define the fluoroscopy reference levels in the country. (author)

The Ionising Radiations Metrology Forum (IRMF) has organised an intercomparison of calibrations of hand-held gamma-ray dose-rate monitors. Such an intercomparison was timely in view of guidance from HSE (HS(G)49) which recommends regular calibration and testing of radiation protection monitoring instruments. The aim of the exercise was to increase confidence in the ability of the participants to perform such calibrations, to identify any problem areas and to highlight the need for traceability to the national primary standard of air kerma. Twelve participants, representing Government laboratories, public and private organisations and Radiation Protection Services, were asked to calibrate two different instruments over a range of dose-rates from three gamma-ray sources, {sup 60}Co, {sup 137}Cs and {sup 241}Am. The instruments were an NE Technology Ltd gamma monitor PDMIB and a Mini Instruments MC20 Geiger probe connected to a 6-90 scaler ratemeter. A check source and test jig were circulated with the instruments to confirm that the response of both monitors remained unchanged throughout the exercise. All results were reported to the authors on a standard form. The protocol included a number of internal checks for confirmatory purposes. Intercomparison results relative to the `true` air kerma rate, calculated by the authors, were reported back to the participants for comment. The results, reported anonymously, are compared and demonstrate that agreement among the various establishments is, in general, within the quoted uncertainties. (author).

An indirect comparison of the standards for air kerma of the Magyar Kereskedelmi Engedélyezési Hivatal (MKEH), Hungary, and of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) was carried out in the 137Cs radiation beam of the BIPM in October 2009. The comparison result, expressed as a ratio of the MKEH and the BIPM calibration coefficients of a transfer chamber for air kerma, is 1.0053 with a combined standard uncertainty of 2.5 × 10-3. The result of the earlier direct comparison in 137Cs ? rays, made in 1994, was 0.9954(30); taking into account the changes made recently to both standards, the 1994 result becomes 1.0038(30), in agreement with the present comparison result. Main text. To reach the main text of this paper, click on Final Report. Note that this text is that which appears in Appendix B of the BIPM key comparison database kcdb.bipm.org/. The final report has been peer-reviewed and approved for publication by the CCRI Section I, according to the provisions of the CIPM Mutual Recognition Arrangement (MRA).

Photon dose conversion coefficients for the human tooth materials are computed in energy range from 0.01 to 10 MeV by the Monte Carlo method. The voxel phantom Golem of the human body with newly defined tooth region and a modified version of the EGS4 code have been used to compute the coefficients for 30 tooth cells with different locations and materials. The dose responses are calculated for cells representing buccal and lingual enamel layers. The computed coefficients demonstrate a strong dependence on energy and geometry of the radiation source and a weaker dependence on location of the enamel voxels. For isotropic and rotational radiation fields the enamel dose does not show a significant dependence on tooth sample locations. The computed coefficients are used to convert from absorbed dose in teeth to organ dose or to integral air kerma. Examples of integral conversion factors from enamel dose to air kerma are given for several photon fluences specific for the Mayak reprocessing plant in Russia. The integral conversion factors are strongly affected by the energy and angular distributions of photon fluence, which are important characteristics of an exposure scenario for reconstruction of individual occupational doses. (orig.)

A comparison of the air kerma standards for medium-energy x-radiation was performed between the MKEH and the IAEA. Two reference class ionization chambers of the IAEA, traceable to the PTB with volumes 1000 cm3 and 100 cm3, and the ISO 4037 N-40, N-60, N-120 and N-300 standard beam qualities were selected for the comparison. The calibration coefficients, NK, were determined for both chambers at the MKEH in August 2011 and before and after this at the IAEA Dosimetry Laboratory. The comparison ratio of the calibration coefficients normalized to the previous comparison results of the PTB and MKEH primary air kerma standards was in the range from 0.989 to 0.994 for the beam qualities used. The relative expanded (k = 2) uncertainty for each of these ratios is around 2%. Main text. To reach the main text of this paper, click on Final Report. Note that this text is that which appears in Appendix B of the BIPM key comparison database kcdb.bipm.org/. The final report has been peer-reviewed and approved for publication by EURAMET, according to the provisions of the CIPM Mutual Recognition Arrangement (CIPM MRA).

The Laboratoire National Henri Becquerel is in charge of the metrology of ionizing radiation within the Laboratoire National de Metrologie et d Essai, the French National Metrology Institute. It is aimed at providing the foundation of ionizing radiation measurements, to develop and disseminate dosimetric standards for medical, radiation processing and radiation protection applications. Among the primary methods in dosimetry, calorimetry is the only one technique which does not involve the knowledge of dosimetric parameters as (W/e), the mean energy expended to produce an ion pair for ionisation chambers, or G the chemical yield of the entity measured for chemical dosimetry. At dose rates larger than about ten grays per hour, measurements can be performed by means of calorimetry which is the most accurate method despite its low sensitivity. All the other dosimeters (including ionization chambers whose volume is not precisely known) must be calibrated. Several beams of various qualities (cobalt-60, cesium, medical type linear accelerator) are characterized and maintained which are useful for instrument calibrations at L.N.H.B. Cobalt -60 and linac beams have been characterized by calorimetry. The L.N.E.-L.N.H.B. G.R.8 graphite calorimeter and its two operating modes (quasi-adiabatic and the new constant-temperature) are presented. The combined standard uncertainties on the graphite absorbed dose standards are 0.24 % and 0.27 % for cobalt-60 and X-rays (6 MV to 20 MV linac) respectively. The absorbed dose to water is then determined by chemical and/or ionometric transfer procedure with uncertainties of 0.35 % and 0.57 % respectively. The absorbed dose to water is the base of the new protocol of 'Absorbed Dose Determination in External Beam Radiotherapy' (IAEA T.R.S. n 398). The exposure of patients for medical treatment (radiotherapy) is part of the purpose and scope of the Eu directive 97/43. For these reasons, standards laboratories have to maintain and improve the calorimetric technique, the basic method to provide an accurate absorbed dose measurement. The standards in terms of air kerma are connected to calorimetry as well through the determination of (W{sub air}/e) essential quantity for ionometric measurement of air kerma. The air kerma is widely used in radiation protection as a reference quantity, and conversion coefficient values to the relevant operational quantity are recommended (ICRU 57). (authors)

Flat-detector computed tomography (FD-CT) scanners provide large irradiation fields of typically 200 mm in the cranio-caudal direction. In consequence, dose assessment according to the current definition of the computed tomography dose index CTDIL=100 mm, where L is the integration length, would demand larger ionization chambers and phantoms which do not appear practical. We investigated the usefulness of the CTDI concept and practical dosimetry approaches for FD-CT by measurements and Monte Carlo (MC) simulations. An MC simulation tool (ImpactMC, VAMP GmbH, Erlangen, Germany) was used to assess the dose characteristics and was calibrated with measurements of air kerma. For validation purposes measurements were performed on an Axiom Artis C-arm system (Siemens Medical Solutions, Forchheim, Germany) equipped with a flat detector of 40 cm × 30 cm. The dose was assessed for 70 kV and 125 kV in cylindrical PMMA phantoms of 160 mm and 320 mm diameter with a varying phantom length from 150 to 900 mm. MC simulation results were compared to the values obtained with a calibrated ionization chambers of 100 mm and 250 mm length and to thermoluminesence (TLD) dose profiles. The MCs simulations were used to calculate the efficiency of the CTDIL determination with respect to the desired CTDI?. Both the MC simulation results and the dose distributions obtained by MC simulation were in very good agreement with the CTDI measurements and with the reference TLD profiles, respectively, to within 5%. Standard CTDI phantoms which have a z-extent of 150 mm underestimate the dose at the center by up to 55%, whereas a z-extent of >=600 mm appears to be sufficient for FD-CT; the baseline value of the respective profile was within 1% to the reference baseline. As expected, the measurements with ionization chambers of 100 mm and 250 mm offer a limited accuracy, whereas an increased integration length of >=600 mm appeared to be necessary to approximate CTDI? in within 1%. MC simulations appear to offer a practical and accurate way of assessing conversion factors for arbitrary dosimetry setups using a standard pencil chamber to provide estimates of CTDI?. This would eliminate the need for extra-long phantoms and ionization chambers or excessive amounts of TLDs.

Based on radiation simulations for the transport of monoenergetic photons through right-angled circular cylinder phantoms, the conversion coefficients between receptor-free air collision kerma and the collision kerma for 4-element ICRU tissue has been investigated for extended plane-parallel X ray beams in two 1.9 cm rod phantoms and two 7.3 cm pillar phantoms 30 cm in length made of 4-element ICRU tissue or PMMA; the X ray beam direction was perpendicular to the phantoms` main axis. Two different types of quantities were calculated for each phantom, (i) the conversion coefficient at that point in the circular middle plane of the phantom perpendicular to its main axis which is localised at a depth of 0.007 g.cm{sup -2} on the radius opposed to the beam direction and (ii) the angular dependence factor which describes the change of the conversion coefficient at the same point in the phantom after performing a rotation around the phantom`s main axis. All these data, in particular those for the tissue phantoms, are of interest in the procedure for calibrating and type testing extremity dosemeters; the data on rod phantoms for finger dosemeters and those on pillar phantoms for wrist and ankle dosemeters. (author).

For medium energy x-rays produced with tube voltages from 70 to 280 kV, the absorbed dose to water, Dw, has been determined by means of water calorimetry with relative standard uncertainties ranging from 0.45% to 0.98% at 280 and 70 kV. The results were confirmed by Monte Carlo calculations, in which the ratios of Dw at 5 cm depth in a reference water phantom to the air kerma free in air, Ka, at the same point in space were compared to the corresponding ratios determined experimentally. The general agreement between measurement and calculation was better than 1%. These results confirm earlier investigations in which the absorbed dose to graphite was determined by means of a graphite extrapolation chamber. For the Monte Carlo calculations, an attempt was made to present a complete uncertainty budget, taking into account type B contributions also.

Neutron kerma of normal and tumor tissues has been calculated using the tissues elemental concentration. A program developed in Math cad contains the kerma factors of C, H, O, N, Na, Mg, P, S, Cl, K, etc. that are in normal and tumor human tissues. Having the elemental composition of any human tissue the neutron kerma can be calculated. The program was tested using the elemental composition of tumor tissues such as sarcoma, melanoma, carcinoma and adenoid cystic, also neutron kerma for adipose and muscle tissue for normal adult was calculated. The results are in agreement with those published in literature. The neutron kerma for water was also calculated because in some dosimetric calculations water is used to describe normal and tumor tissues. From this comparison was found that at larger energies kerma factors are approximately the same, but energies less than 100 eV the differences are large. (Author)

Radiation dose and image quality for paediatric protocols in all five X-ray fluoroscopy systems used for interventional cardiology procedures existing in Chile have been evaluated. Entrance surface air kerma (ESAK) and image quality using a test object (TO) and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) phantoms have been measured for the typical paediatric patient thicknesses (4-16 cm of PMMA). Images from fluoroscopy (low (FL), medium and high) and cine (CI) modes have been archived in DICOM format. Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), figure of merit (FOM) and high-contrast spatial resolution (HCSR) have been computed from the images. The ratio between the maximum and the minimum value of ESAK per frame for a given fluoroscopy mode between the five systems ranges from 2 to 5 and from 14 to 38 for CI mode. ...

A series of irradiations was performed at the AFRRI TRIGA reactor as the initial step in establishing a dosimetric link between neutron radiobiology research (using high dose rates close to the source) and military applications experiments (using low dose rates farther from the source). A team of physicists from ETCA, part of the French Ministry of Defense, irradiated several personnel dosimeters both free in air (FIA) and at various depths in an anthropomorphic dosimetry phantom. As reference dosimetry, the ETCA group used fission chambers and AFRRI dosimetrists used paired ionization chambers. The kerma rates measured FIA by the two groups with fundamentally different methods showed excellent agreement (within 5%). However, more work is required to resolve some of the difference observed in the in-phantom measurements. The completion of these experiments marks an important first step in relating mixed-field radiobiology studies to potential combat radiation environments.

Mean Glandular Dose (MGD) cannot be measured directly in mammography equipment. Therefore, methods based on Compton spectrometry are alternatives to evaluate dose distributions in a standard breast phantom, as well as mean glandular dose. In this work, a CdTe detector was used for the spectrometry measurements of radiation scattered by Compton Effect, at nearly 90 deg, by a PMMA cylinder inserted between the breast phantom plates. For this, the reconstruction of primary beam spectra from the scattered ones has been made using Klein-Nishina theory and Compton formalism, followed by a determination of incident air kerma, absorbed dose values in the breast phantom and, finally, MGD. Incident and attenuated X-ray spectra and depth-dose distributions in a BR-12 phantom have been determined and are presented for the mammography range (28 to 35kV). Results have shown good agreement with previous literature data, obtained with TLD. (author)

Fluoroscopy guided examinations in a paediatric X ray department were initially carried out on a unit that used a conventional screen-film combination for spot-films. A new fluoroscopy unit was installed with the facilities of digital fluorography and last image hold. Comparison of equipment performance showed that the dose per image for screen-film and digital fluorography was 3 {mu}Gy and 0.4 {mu}Gy, respectively. Although the screen-film had superior image quality, the department's radiologist confirmed that digital fluorography provided a diagnostic image. Patient dose measurements showed that introduction of the new unit caused doses to fall by an average of 70%, although fluoroscopy time had not changed significantly. The new unit produced 40% less air kerma during fluoroscopy. The remaining 30% reduction in dose was due to the introduction of digital fluorography and last image hold facilities. It is concluded that the use of digital fluorography can be an effective way of reducing paediatric dose. (author)

This paper presents the results of the 4th International Comparison of in vitro electron paramagnetic resonance dosimetry with tooth enamel, where the performance parameters of tooth enamel dosimetry methods were compared among sixteen laboratories from all over the world. The participating laboratories were asked to determine a calibration curve with a set of tooth enamel powder samples provided by the organizers. Nine molar teeth extracted following medical indication from German donors and collected between 1997 and 2007 were prepared and irradiated at the Helmholtz Zentrum Munchen. Five out of six samples were irradiated at 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 Gy air kerma; and one unirradiated sample was kept as control. The doses delivered to the individual samples were unknown to the particip...

In this paper conversion coefficients (CCs) of equivalent dose and effective in terms of kerma in the air were calculated suggested by the ICRP 74. These dose coefficients were calculated considering a plane radiation source and monoenergetic for a spectrum of energy varying from 10 keV to 2 MeV. The CCs were obtained for four geometries of irradiation, anterior-posterior, posterior-anterior, lateral right side and lateral left side. It was used the radiation transport code Visual Monte Carlo (VMC), and a anthropomorphic simulator of sit female voxel. The observed differences in the found values for the CCs at the four irradiation sceneries are direct results of the body organs disposition, and the distance of these organs to the irradiation source. The obtained CCs will be used for estimative more precise of dose in situations that the exposed individual be sit, as the normally the CCs available in the literature were calculated by using simulators always lying or on their feet

Due to recalculations of the neutron output of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs, re-assessments of the doses to survivors are under review. The details of the sources of radiation, bombs and detonations are given. This is followed by a discussion of the doses received by the survivors due to the immediate photon and neutron emission from the bomb and subsequent fireball, and the interactions of these radiations with air, ground and other shielding material. There remains considerable uncertainty in the results of these new calculations. The re-assessment is still in progress and will need to include recalculations of shielding factors from the effects of terrain and buildings, and a consideration of KERMA to organ dose conversion factors.

A conceptual design is presented to use measurements of localized absorbed dose in inner cities for production of high resolution maps of the radioactive contamination following a nuclear emergency or radiological attack. The doses are derived from luminescent detectors pre-fixed at places of high importance (e.g. public squares). For such an environmental dosimeter, BeO is used, which can be read out using optically stimulated luminescence (OSL). A suitable casing of black Perspex has been developed to give a sufficiently accurate estimate of the air kerma value at the detector position. The dosimeter is characterized according to light tightness, dose response and angular photon energy dependence. A short overview of the approach for map production is also given.

A set of conversion coefficients from kerma free-in-air to the organ-absorbed dose are presented for external monoenergetic photon beams from 10 keV to 10 MeV based on the Chinese mathematical phantom, a whole-body mathematical phantom model. The model was developed based on the methods of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory mathematical phantom series and data from the Chinese Reference Man and the Reference Asian Man. This work is carried out to obtain the conversion coefficients based on this model, which represents the characteristics of the Chinese population, as the anatomical parameters of the Chinese are different from those of Caucasians. Monte Carlo simulation with MCNP code is carried out to calculate the organ dose conversion coefficients. Before the calculation, the effects from...

PurposeTo measure the absorbed dose rate to water of 60Co gamma rays of a Gamma Knife Model C using water-filled phantoms (WFP). Methods and MaterialsSpherical WFP with an equivalent water depth of 5, 7, 8, and 9 cm were constructed. The dose rates at the center of an 18-mm helmet were measured in an 8-cm WFP (WFP-3) and two plastic phantoms. Two independent measurement systems were used: one was calibrated to an air kerma (Set I) and the other was calibrated to the absorbed dose to water (Set II). The dose rates of WFP-3 and the plastic phantoms were converted to dose rates for an 8-cm water depth using the attenuation coefficient and the equivalent water depths. ResultsThe dose rate measured at the center of WFP-3 using Set II was 2.2% and 1.0% higher than dose rates measured at the cent...

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the dose rate distribution around (192)Ir wires used as radioactive sources in low-dose-rate brachytherapy applications. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Monte Carlo modeling of a 0.3-mm diameter source and its surrounding water medium was performed for five different wire lengths (1-5 cm) using the MCNP software package. RESULTS: The computed dose rates per unit of air kerma at distances from 0.1 up to 10 cm away from the source were first verified with literature data sets. Then, the simulation results were compared with the calculations from the XiO CMS commercial treatment planning system. CONCLUSION: The study results were found to be in concordance with the treatment planning system calculations except for the shorter wires at close distances. PMID:23054886

A simple, practical and economical technique was proposed to calibrate an {sup 192}Ir HDR brachytherapy source in terms of air kerma strength. This technique makes use of the 0.6 cm{sup 3} Farmer type ion chamber, radiographic film and polystyrene phantom. These tools are commonly used for dosimetry quality assurance of the clinical linear accelerator. In this study, the Exradin A19, PTW N30004 and TM30001 Farmer type ion chambers were used for the calibration of the {sup 192}Ir HDR source. To perform the calibration, a 25.4x30.5 cm{sup 2} radiographic film was taped on a piece of polystyrene plate, and a straight applicator probe of a HDR brachytherapy unit and the Farmer type ion chamber were affixed to the film envelope. The film was irradiated by the {sup 192}Ir source, followed by an exposure in the simulator X-ray beam. The film set with the film removed was then placed on a 5 cm thick polystyrene phantom for calibration measurement. Based on the electrometer reading from the Farmer type ion chamber irradiated by {sup 192}Ir and the measured source-to-chamber distance by means of the images on the developed film, we can calculate the air kerma strength of the {sup 192}Ir using the new technique. Our calibration results were compared to the data provided by the manufacturer and that of five different well type ion chambers, namely, Sun Nuclear cooperation (SNC) 1008, Nucletron SDS 077.091, SDS 077.094, PTW TN33004 and Standard Imaging (SI) HDR-1000 Plus. The differences were all within 1.6%. Relative to the '7-distance measurement technique' by Stump et al., 2002, our method is more efficient if our empirical formula was used. In summary, our method is simpler and cost-effective to calibrate an {sup 192}Ir HDR brachytherapy source for those hospitals without a calibration jig or a well type ion chamber.

The Index of the Quality of the Air (IQUA) described in this report was originally developed by a subcommittee of the Federal-Provincial Advisory Committee on Air Quality (FPACAQ) in the late 1970s. This report replaces the Annual Air Quality Index, provi...

Monte Carlo simulations were used to evaluate the radiation dose to infinitely long cylinders of water, polyethylene, and poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA) from 10 to 500 mm in diameter. Radiation doses were computed by simulating a 10 mm divergent primary beam striking the cylinder at z = 0, and the scattered radiation in the -z and +z directions was integrated out to infinity. Doses were assessed using the total energy deposited divided by the mass of the 10-mm-thick volume of material in the primary beam. This approach is consistent with the notion of the computed tomography dose index (CTDI) integrated over infinite z, which is equivalent to the dose near the center of an infinitely long CT scan. Monoenergetic x-ray beams were studied from 5 to 140 keV, allowing polyenergetic x-ray spectra to be evaluated using a weighted average. The radiation dose for a 10-mm-thick CT slice was assessed at the center, edge, and over the entire diameter of the phantom. The geometry of a commercial CT scanner was simulated, and the computed results were in good agreement with measured doses. The absorbed dose in water for 120 kVp x-ray spectrum with no bow tie filter for a 50 mm cylinder diameter was about 1.2 mGy per mGy air kerma at isocenter for both the peripheral and center regions, and dropped to 0.84 mGy/mGy for a 500-mm-diam water phantom at the periphery, where the corresponding value for the center location was 0.19 mGy/mGy. The influence of phantom composition was studied. For a diameter of 100 mm, the dose coefficients were 1.23 for water, 1.02 for PMMA, and 0.94 for polyethylene (at 120 kVp). For larger diameter phantoms, the order changed-for a 400 mm phantom, the dose coefficient of polyethylene (0.25) was greater than water (0.21) and PMMA (0.16). The influence of the head and body bow tie filters was also studied. For the peripheral location, the dose coefficients when no bow tie filter was used were high (e.g., for a water phantom at 120 kVp at a diameter of 300 mm, the dose coefficient was 0.97). The body bow tie filter reduces this value to 0.62, and the head bow tie filter (which is not actually designed to be used for a 300 mm object) reduces the dose coefficient to 0.42. The dose in CT is delivered both by the absorption of primary and scattered x-ray photons, and at the center of a water cylinder the ratio of scatter to primary (SPR) doses increased steadily with cylinder diameter. For water, a 120 kVp spectrum and a cylinder diameter of 200 mm, the SPR was 4, and this value grew to 9 for a diameter of 350 mm and to over 16 for a 500-mm-diam cylinder. A freely available spreadsheet was developed to allow the computation of radiation dose as a function of object diameter (10-500 mm), composition (water, polyethylene, PMMA), and beam energy (10-140 keV, 40-140 kVp). PMID:18649475

For A-150 tissue-equivalent plastic, the total neutron kerma is dominated by the hydrogen kerma. Tissue kerma is inferred with reasonable accuracy by normalization to the kerma factor ratio between tissue and A-150 plastic. Because of the close match in the hydrogen abundance in these materials, the principal uncertainty is due to the kerma factors of carbon and oxygen. We have measured carbon kerma factor values of 0.183 +- 0.015 10/sup -8/ cGy cm/sup 2/ and 0.210 +- 0.16 10/sup -8/ cGy cm/sup 2/ at 14.1-MeV and 15-MeV neutron energy, respectively. A preliminary value of 0.297 +- 0.03 10/sup -8/ cGy cm/sup 2/ has been determined at 17.9 MeV. A recent microscopic cross section measurement of the (n,n'3..cap alpha..) reaction in carbon at 14.1-MeV energy gives a kerma factor of 0.184 +- 0.019 10/sup 8/ cGy cm/sup 2/ in agreement with the present result. 9 refs., 4 figs., 2 tabs.

International and national reports strongly recommend experimental verification of the calibration of new HDR 192Ir sources prior to their clinical application for afterloading brachytherapy. To guarantee traceability, calibrated transfer standards are used, e.g. the recommended well-type ionization chambers (WIC) or certain detector-phantom arrangements (DPA) consisting of a thimble-type ionization chamber with a solid phantom. In Germany, direct calibrations for 192Ir were only provided for WICs. In June 2010, the PTB directly calibrated a DPA-transfer standard in the quantity reference air-kerma rate (RAKR) for 192Ir photons for the University Hospital Tübingen. This direct calibration provides the advantage that the comprehensive RAKR 192Ir calibration coefficient already takes all influence quantities into account—their correction factors are thus unified—except for the air-density correction k?. The DPA-transfer standard described above and a WIC used as a reference were compared for acceptance tests of three GammaMedplus HDR 192Ir afterloading sources. The measurement uncertainty of the WIC and of the DPA-transfer standard were ±2.6%(k = 2) and ±2.8%(k = 2) respectively. A strong correlation was found between these measurement results with a coefficient of determination of r2 = 0.9998. Determining the RAKR of an HDR 192Ir afterloading source is as simple with the DPA as it is with WIC. The direct 192Ir calibrated DPA-transfer standard can therefore be used alternatively in future with the same measurement uncertainty if no WIC is available.

To determine the neutron shielding features of water-extended polyester a Monte Carlo study was carried out. Materials with low atomic number are predominantly used for neutron shielding because these materials effectively attenuate neutrons, mainly through inelastic collisions and absorption reactions. During the selection of materials to design a neutron shield, prompt gamma production as well as radionuclide production induced by neutron activation must be considered. In this investigation the Monte Carlo method was used to evaluate the performance of a water-extended polyester shield designed for the transportation, storage, and use of a {sup 252}Cf isotopic neutron source. During calculations a detailed model for the {sup 252}Cf and the shield was utilized. To compare the shielding features of water extended polyester, the calculations were also made for the bare {sup 252}Cf in vacuum, air and the shield filled with water. For all cases the calculated neutron spectra was utilized to determine the ambient equivalent neutron dose at four sites around the shielding. In the case of water extended polyester and water shielding the calculations were extended to include the prompt gamma rays produced during neutron interactions, with this information the Kerma in air was calculated at the same locations where the ambient equivalent neutron dose was determined. (Author)

This paper presents detective quantum efficiency (DQE) data measured for a range of x-ray beam qualities for two full-field digital mammography (FFDM) systems: a caesium iodide (CsI) detector-based unit and a system designed around an amorphous selenium (a-Se) x-ray detector. Four beam qualities were studied for each system, covering mean energies from 17.8 keV to 23.4 keV for the CsI system and 17.8 keV to 24.7 keV for the a-Se unit. These were set using 2, 4, 6 and 7 cm polymethylmethacralate (PMMA) and typical tube voltage and target/filter combinations selected by the automatic exposure control (AEC) program used clinically on these systems. Normalized noise power spectra (NNPS) were calculated from flood images acquired at these beam qualities for a target detector air kerma of 100 µGy. Modulation transfer function (MTF) data were acquired at 28 kV and Mo/Mo target/filter setting. The DQE was then calculated from the MTF and NNPS results. For comparison, the quantum detective efficiency (QDE) and energy absorption efficiency (EAE) were calculated from tabulated narrow beam spectral data. With regard to detector response, some energy dependence was noted for pixel value plotted against air kerma at the detector. This amounted to a change in the gradient of the detector response of approximately 15% and 30% per keV for the CsI- and a-Se-based systems, respectively. For the DQE results, a reduction in DQE(0) of 22% was found for the CsI-based unit as beam quality changed from 25 kV Mo/Mo and 2 cm PMMA to 32 kV Rh/Rh and 7 cm PMMA. For the a-Se system, a change in beam quality from 25 kV Mo/Mo and 2 cm PMMA to 34 kV Mo/Rh and 7 cm PMMA led to a reduction in DQE(0) of 8%. Comparing measured data with simple calculations, a reduction in x-ray quantum detection efficiency of 27% was expected for the CsI-based system, while a reduction of 11% was predicted for the a-Se system.

Accurate radiation dosimetry is of paramount importance in order to ensure safe delivery of radiotherapy, and for the possibility of meaningful evaluation of clinical trials, as the radiation absorbed dose is correlated to tissue response. The aim of the studies described in this thesis was to investigate and devise novel approaches to mixed beam dosimetry in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). The computer model of the epithermal neutron beam at the Studsvik BNCT facility was described and experimentally verified. Good agreement was generally obtained in phantom (<5%) for the photon and fast neutron absorbed dose, and thermal neutron fluence, which can be seen as verification of the computer model. However, the calculated in-air photon kerma (photon contamination) of the beam was about 39% lower than the measured value. The effective energy of this photon contamination was investigated using photon kerma transmission through bismuth. The calculated photon spectrum consisted mainly of 478 keV gamma-rays from boron neutron capture in the collimator, while the measurements indicated a higher effective energy; an actual photon spectrum comprised of 53% and 47% relative 478 keV and 2.22 MeV fluence free in air, respectively, reproduced the measured transmission within 3%. The validated computer model of the mixed beam was subsequently used to calculate beam-dependent correction factors for the detectors used for dosimetry under reference conditions. Efforts were made to adhere to the (kQ) formalism and practice used in conventional radiotherapy, rather than that previously used in neutron radiotherapy. The calculations showed that commonly used ionization chambers could be employed in the epithermal neutron beam at Studsvik with kQ factors ranging between 1.02 and 1.10. The methodology employed ensured measurements with uncertainties of the thermal neutron fluence (1.4%, 1 SD), and the photon absorbed dose (2.5%, 1 SD) comparable to conventional radiotherapy standards. The measurement of the fast neutron absorbed dose, however, was associated with substantial uncertainties (24%, 1 SD). Clinical trials ensued, and the treatment procedure, as well as aspects of the clinical dosimetry, at the Studsvik facility is discussed in this thesis. Novel methods for verification of the clinical dosimetry in BNCT, which are presented in this thesis, ensure therapeutic safety. The methods presented include verification of the clinical dosimetry both prior to and following therapy. The verification employed prior to therapy was shown to have an uncertainty of 6.0% (1 SD), while the in vivo dosimetry method utilized in a post-therapy analysis benefits from improvements, as the uncertainty of 11.2% (1 SD) was estimated. This thesis presents a comprehensive discourse on the mixed beam dosimetry of epithermal neutron beams designed for BNCT.

The bibliography contains citations concerning indoor air pollution in residential, commercial, industrial, and institutional buildings. Indoor air quality assessment, health hazard evaluation, and contaminant identification and measurement are discussed. Indoor air pollution control methods and equipment are evaluated. Air quality analyses of energy efficient buildings are presented. Indoor air pollution from radon and asbestos are discussed in other bibliographies. (Contains 250 citations and includes a subject term index and title list.)

Air quality measurement programs in Finnish towns have expanded during the last few years. As a result of this it is more and more difficult to make use of all the measured concentration data. Citizens of Finnish towns are nowadays taking more of an interest in the air quality of their surroundings. The need to describe air quality in a simplified form has increased. Air quality indices permit the presentation of air quality data in such a way that prevailing conditions are more easily understandable than when using concentration data as such. Using an air quality index always means that some of the information about concentrations of contaminants in the air will be lost. How much information is possible to extract from a single index number depends on the calculation method. A new method for the calculation of an air quality index has been developed. This index always indicates the overstepping of an air quality guideline level. The calculation of this air quality index is performed using the concentrations of all the contaminants measured. The index gives information both about the prevailing air quality and also the short-term trend. It can also warn about the expected exceeding of guidelines due to one or several contaminants. The new index is especially suitable for the real-time monitoring and notification of air quality values. The behaviour of the index was studied using material from a measurement period in the spring of 1994 in Kaepylae, Helsinki. Material from a pre-operational period in the town of Oulu was also available. (author)

Tabel: Mööblitootjate TOP. Vt. samas: Edukaim gasellfirma tabeli keskel; 2005. aasta edetabel; Bellus Furnitur haaras selgi aastal esikoha; Jalaxit aitasid aktiivsed kliendid; Klienditeeninduse tõhustamine kasvatas Falkonet Metall OÜ kasumit üle kahe korra. Küsimusele vastavad Juho Toomik ja Priit Kerma

The aim of this work was to determine mean absorbed doses to the unborn child in common conventional X-ray and computed tomography (CT) examinations and to find an approach for estimating foetal dose based on data registered in the Radiological Information System/Picture Archive and Communication System (RIS/PACS). The kerma-area product (KAP) and CT dose index (CTDI{sub vol}) in common examinations were registered using a human-shaped female dosimetry phantom. Foetal doses, D{sub f}, were measured using thermoluminescent dosimeters placed inside the phantom and compared with calculated values. Measured foetal doses were given in relation to the KAP and the CTDI{sub vol} values, respectively. Conversion factor D{sub f}/KAP varies between 0.01 and 3.8 mGy/Gycm{sup 2}, depending on primary beam position, foetus age and beam quality (tube voltage and filtration). Conversion factors D{sub f}/CTDI{sub vol} are in the range 0.02 - 1.2 mGy/mGy, in which the foetus is outside or within the primary beam. We conclude that dose conversion factors based on KAP or CTDI{sub vol} values automatically generated by the RIS/PACS system can be used for rapid estimations of foetal dose for common examination techniques. (orig.)

Abstract in portuguese OBJETIVO: Avaliar o desempenho de um equipamento de raios X utilizado em radiologia intervencionista e a qualidade de imagem produzida, aplicando alguns testes de controle de qualidade. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: O equipamento de raios X testado foi da marca Philips (Integris H3000), do serviço de hemodinâmica de um hospital do Rio de Janeiro. Foram utilizados objetos de teste de Leeds para avaliar a qualidade da imagem, e um sistema Radcal 9015 para medições dosimétricas (more) . RESULTADOS: Nos modos high e normal, os valores medidos das taxas de kerma no ar foram diferentes dos esperados. Em alguns casos, os valores das taxas medidas não foram afetados pelo uso de diferentes modos de magnificação. A avaliação da qualidade da imagem apresentou resultados diferentes dos valores recomendados pelas normas. Isto pode levar à obtenção de imagens de menor qualidade e ao aumento da exposição à radiação de pacientes e profissionais. CONCLUSÃO: Os resultados mostraram a importância da aplicação periódica de testes de controle de qualidade, que permitem monitorar o desempenho do equipamento e estimar a exposição dos pacientes e trabalhadores. Os resultados obtidos sugerem a necessidade de uma revisão no sistema de aquisição de imagens do equipamento. Abstract in english OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the performance and quality of images of a x-ray equipment utilized in interventional radiology, by means of some tests of quality control. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Measurements have been performed on a Philips Integris H3000 x-ray equipment dedicated to interventional procedures in the hemodynamics laboratory of a hospital in Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil. Leeds test objects have been used to evaluate the image quality. Dosimetric measurements have been (more) developed with a Radcal 9015 dosimetric system. RESULTS: In high and normal modes, the air kerma rates have been different from the expected results. In some cases, values have not been affected by the use of different magnification modes. The images quality evaluation has showed different results from those recommended by technical standards. This could lead to the acquisition of poor quality images besides an increase in the radiation exposure levels for both patients and staff. CONCLUSION: The results have shown the importance of a periodical quality control testing, allowing the monitoring of the x-ray equipment performance and evaluation of radiation exposure levels for both patients and staff. The results suggest the need of a revision of the x-ray images acquisition system.

Abstract in portuguese OBJETIVO: O objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar a influência da dependência energética de materiais termoluminescentes na determinação da dose na entrada da pele de pacientes submetidos a exames radiográficos (radiologia geral, mamografia e radiologia odontológica). MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Três diferentes materiais termoluminescentes foram utilizados: LiF:Mg,Ti, LiF:Mg,Cu,P e CaSO4:Dy. Estes materiais foram expostos a fontes padronizadas de radiação X e gama (more) , e a feixes clínicos de raios X. RESULTADOS: As curvas de calibração e de dependência energética foram obtidas. Todos os materiais apresentaram resposta linear em função do kerma no ar. Com relação à dependência energética, as amostras de CaSO4:Dy e LiF:Mg,Ti mostraram maior variação da resposta termoluminescente em função da energia efetiva do feixe de radiação. CONCLUSÃO: Os materiais testados mostraram desempenho adequado para a detecção da radiação X em feixes padronizados e clínicos. Embora as amostras de CaSO4:Dy e LiF:Mg,Ti apresentem dependência energética significativa no intervalo de energia considerado, este materiais podem ser utilizados para medição da dose de entrada na pele se fatores de correção apropriados forem utilizados. Abstract in english OBJECTIVE: This study was aimed at evaluating the influence of the energy dependence of thermoluminescent materials on the determination of entrance skin dose in patients submitted to conventional radiographic studies (general radiology, mammography and dental radiology). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Three different thermoluminescent materials were utilized: LiF:Mg,Ti, LiF:Mg,Cu,P and CaSO4:Dy. These materials were exposed to standardized sources of X and gamma radiation and cl (more) inical X-ray beams. RESULTS: Calibration and energy dependence curves were obtained. All the materials showed a linear response as a function of the air kerma. As far as energy dependence is concerned, the CaSO4:Dy and LiF:Mg,Ti samples showed the greatest variation on thermoluminescent responses as a function of the effective radiation beam. CONCLUSION: The tested materials showed an appropriate performance for detecting X radiation on standard and clinical X-ray beams. Although CaSO4:Dy and LiF:Mg,Ti samples present a significant energy dependence in the considered energy range, these materials can be utilized for measuring entrance skin doses, provided appropriate correction factors are applied.

We performed a cytogenetical study using chromosome painting analysis on 9 residents of the naturally high background radiation areas (HBRA) and 8 residents of the control areass in southern China. The estimated dose (air kerma) of each resident measured by an electric pocket dosimeter showed 2.20-4.23 mGy/year in HBRA and 0.56-0.70 mGy/year in the control areas. A total of 14,096 cells (1,566 cells/case) in the former and 17,522 cells (2,190 cells/case) in the latter were analyzed. Children, both in HBRA and in the control areas, had translocations at low frequencies. The frequency of translocations among elder individuals varied widely and it was not possible to detect dose effect although it was detected in dicentrics. The effect of radiation on the induction of chromosome aberrations, which have a statistically potential risk of causing malignant or congenital diseases, seems to be less significant than those of metabolic factors and/or mutagenic agents (excluding radiation) even in HBRA in China.   

A digital x-ray mammography is a modern method for the early detection of breast cancer. The quality of a mammography image depends on various factors, the detector structure and performance being of primary importance. The aim of this work was to develop an analytical model simulating the imaging performance of a new commercially available digital mammography detector. This was achieved within the framework of the linear cascaded systems (LCS) theory. System analysis has allowed the estimation of important image quality metrics such as the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF), the Noise Power Spectrum (NPS) and the Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE). The detector was an indirect detection system consisting of a large area, 100?m thick, CsI:TI scintillator coupled to an active matrix array of amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) photodiodes combined with thin film transistors (TFT). Pixel size was 100?m, while the active pixel dimension was 70?m. MTF and DQE data were calculated for air kerma conditions of 25, 53, 67 ?Gy using a 28 kVp Mo-Mo x-ray spectrum. The theoretical results were compared with published experimental data. The deviation between the theoretical and experimental MTF curves was less than 4%, while the DQE differences were found at an acceptable level. The model was also used to estimate system's capability to detect low contrast objects in the breast. It was estimated that, in the breast gland, low contrast structures larger than 1.4mm can be adequately identified by the above system.

Breast phantoms produced with tissue-equivalent materials are used in an attempt to simulate glandular and adipose tissues, in terms of X-ray attenuation and density. In this work, a set of breast tissue-equivalent phantoms (BTE phantoms) with semicircular shapes of different thicknesses and compositions were produced. Such phantoms may be used in the measurement of the incident air kerma (K(i)) and the mean glandular dose (D(G)) delivered to patients undergoing mammography. To characterise the materials used to produce the phantoms, a series of 17-keV X-ray attenuation coefficient measurements were performed. The carbon-nitrogen-hydrogen elemental composition and the densities of the tissue-equivalent materials were also determined and compared with values available in the literature. Linear attenuation coefficients of 0.724 and 0.923 cm(-1) were determined, respectively, for adipose and glandular tissues. Such values agree with data available in the literature. On the basis of the results obtained in this work, it is suggested that BTE phantoms are used instead of polymethyl methacrylate phantoms to select exposure parameters (kV, mAs and target/filter combination) specific for breast glandularities from 0 to 50 % in the optimisation of doses in mammography. PMID:22223722

The MAX phantom has been developed from existing segmented images of a male adult body, in order to achieve a representation as close as possible to the anatomical properties of the reference adult male specified by the ICRP. In computational dosimetry, MAX can simulate the geometry of a human body under exposure to ionizing radiations, internal or external, with the objective of calculating the equivalent dose in organs and tissues for occupational, medical or environmental purposes of the radiation protection. This study presents a methodology used to build a new computational exposure model MAX/EGS4: the geometric construction of the phantom; the development of the algorithm of one-directional, divergent, and isotropic radioactive sources; new methods for calculating the equivalent dose in the red bone marrow and in the skin, and the coupling of the MAX phantom with the EGS4 Monte Carlo code. Finally, some results of radiation protection, in the form of conversion coefficients between equivalent dose (or effective dose) and free air-kerma for external photon irradiation are presented and discussed. Comparing the results presented with similar data from other human phantoms it is possible to conclude that the coupling MAX/EGS4 is satisfactory for the calculation of the equivalent dose in radiation protection. (author)

The monochromatic K fluorescence X-ray beams ranging from 8.6 keV to 75 keV were produced to construct a complete response functions of the personal dosemeters and the radiation monitoring instruments using a combination of an X-ray generator and a series of 8 radiators and filters described in ISO-4037 installed in Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI). These fluorescence X-rays generated by primary X-rays from radiator were discriminated K{sub {beta}} lines with the aid of filter material and the only K{sub {alpha}} X-rays were analyzed with the high purity Germanium (HPGe) planar detector and the portable Multichannel Analyzer (MCA) The beam uniformity and the scattered effects of the radiation fields were measured with the NE2530/1 35 cc ionization chamber and the Victoreen 530 electrometer. The beam purities were more than 90% for the energy range of 8.6 keV to 75 keV, and the effective area of radiation fields at the measurement point of air kerma rates was 12 cm x 12 cm and the influence of scattered radiation was less than 3%. The fluorescence X-rays established in this study could be used for the determination of energy response of the radiation measurement devices and the personal dosemeters in low photon energy regions. (author)

Section I of the Consultative Committee for Standards of Ionizing Radiation (CCEMRI) held its thirteenth meeting at the Pavillon de Breteuil, Sevres, in April 1997. The recent work of the BIPM was reviewed and, after discussion of the points raised in the meeting and of the reports of the member laboratories, the programme for future work was agreed. The results of several international comparisons, involving the BIPM or carried out independently between standards laboratories, were reported. The CCMRI Section I was asked to consider the draft report on agreement for metrological equivalence of standards distributed by the Director of the BIPM to member institutes. A working group was charged with identifying the key comparisons concerning X- and {gamma}-rays and electrons, and with providing a plan and timetable which will allow Section I to consider a reference value for air kerma for {sup 60}Co {gamma}-rays at its next meeting. Progress on water calorimetry for absorbed dose to water measurements was described. Standards for brachytherapy, radiation protection and radiation processing were discussed. Progress in facilities, staffing and research, and approaches to implementing ISO Guide 25 for calibration laboratories were discussed in reports from member laboratories. (author)

This report describes the radiation dosage reduction possible in the general dental practice with two CCD (charge-coupled device)-based intraoral radiographic systems; the RVG-S (Trophy Radiologie, Vincennes, France) and the Sens-A-Ray (Regam Medical Systems, Sundsvall, Sweden). Radiation dosages (air-kerma; Gy) necessary for obtaining clinically acceptable images were measured at the cone tip using an ionization chamber type 660-1 (Nuclear Associates, Victoreen, Inc., Carle Place, New York, USA). When the RVG-S was used with an Oramatic 70 (Trophy Radiologie) X-ray generator, dosages at the cone tip ranged from 322 to 612 {mu}Gy. These corresponded to 40-60% of the dosages necessary when using Ektaspeed dental X-ray film (Eastman Kodak, Rochester, New York, USA) with a Heliodent 70 (Siemens, Erlangen, Germany) X-ray generator. At 60 kVp, the Sens-A-Ray reduced the dosage in the order of 30% compared with Ektaspeed dental X-ray film. Reduction in radiation dosage is one of the benefits of digital intraoral radiographic systems in general dental clinics. The RVG-S provides greater dose savings than does the Sens-A-Ray. (author)

The AAPM TG-43 modified protocol was used for the calculation of the neutron dose rate of {sup 252}Cf sources for two tissue substitute materials, five normal tissues and six tumours. The {sup 252}Cf AT source model was simulated using the Monte Carlo MCNPX code in spherical geometry for the following factors: a) neutron air kerma strength conversion factor, b) dose rate constant, c) radial dose function, d) geometry factor, e) anisotropy function and f) neutron dose rate. The calculated dose rate in water at 1 cm and 90 degrees from the source long axis, using the Watt fission spectrum, was D{sub n}(r{sub 0}, {theta}{sub 0})= 1.9160 cGy/h-{mu}g. When this value is compared with Rivard et al. calculation using MCNP4B code, 1.8730 cGy/h-{mu}g, a difference of 2.30% is obtained. The results for the reference neutron dose rate in other media show how small variations in the elemental composition between the tissues and malignant tumours, produce variations in the neutron dose rate up to 12.25%. (Author)

This study presents a methodology for the determination of the air kerma inside buildings due to contamination on the external surfaces and the shielding factors for the construction material to be used on emergency assessment systems for urban areas. The commonly used construction materials were simulated with the MCNP computer code. A special methodology to simulate the bricks with holes were developed, mixing all different regions into a single one, making the simulation easier and faster. The effective density and the attenuation coefficients for the 50-3000 keV energy range were determined. The effective protection for the bricks with no cement cover decreases by 40-50% for energies greater then 300 keV when compared to bricks covered on both sides. With the data made available it was possible to evaluate the influence of the construction materials densities and thickness on the exposure due to external surfaces contamination and to estimate the error on the dose when the shielding factor applied on the calculation differs from the more realistic ones. The shielding factors for three types of walls were determined for a five rooms house. Special protection procedures should be applied for houses built with bricks with no cement cover, because they are due to the double of the dose when compared to houses built with bricks two-sided cement covered. The influence of windows and doors were evaluated too. This work was developed at the IRD in order to provide information on the construction material commonly uses on building in Brazil. (author)

The Ribble Estuary in the UK is contaminated by radionuclides derived from BNFL Sellafield and Springfield. Following the temporary shutdown of the Springfields plant, beta dose and gamma air kerma rates were measured at a range of sites in the estuary. Sediment surface samples were analysed for {sup 137}Cs, {sup 234m}Pa, {sup 234}Th and {sup 241}Am activity concentrations by gamma spectrometry, {sup 230}Th and Pu isotopes by alpha spectrometry and sediment grain size (percentage < 63 {mu}m) by wet sieving. Temporal variations in Springfields-derived radionuclides are explained by variations in discharges by radionuclides and the distribution of fine grained sediments in the estuary which is controlled mainly by the spring-neap tidal cycle and river runoff. Radionuclide dynamics, modelling variations in the {sup 234}Th/{sup 137}Cs activity concentration ratio and calculating environmental beta dose rate and {sup 234}Th half-lives allow the estuary to be split into three areas: (a) upper estuary where fine grained sediments tend to be deposited during periods of low and average river flow; (b) middle reaches of the estuary which encompass most of the main channel sites where fine grained sediments are probably deposited and removed on most tides; (c) outer estuary including large areas of salt marshes which tend to accumulate fine grained sediment. This is confirmed by similar results derived from the {sup 234}Th/{sup 239,240}Pu ratio. (author).

An approach to achieve refractive index sensing at an air and aqueous glycerol solution interface is proposed using a tapered-fiber-based microfiber Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MFMZI). Compared to a surrounding uniform medium of air or solutions, the spectral interference visibility of the MFMZI at the air/solution interface is significantly reduced due to a weak coupling between the fundamental cladding mode and high-order asymmetric cladding modes, which are extremely sensitive to the external refractive index. The MFMZI is experimentally demonstrated as an evanescent wave refractive index sensor to measure concentrations of glycerol solutions by monitoring average power attenuation of the tapered fiber. PMID:23089794

This conference provided a forum for the scientific community to exchange information on air quality science and its relationship to health. The six sessions of the conference were entitled: an overview of air quality science; results from Alberta studies; health effects of sour gas and flaring emissions; health and ambient air quality; health effects and exposure to heavy metals; and, emerging issues in air quality. Three papers were indexed separately for inclusion in the database. refs., tabs., figs.

The unique propulsion control requirements of supersonic aircraft are presented. Integration of inlet ... trols, and additional auxiliary air intakes for the inlet. ... Using the distortion index to operate the bleeds delayed their open- ing point to a ...

A pavement condition survey was performed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, in August 1989 for the purpose of determining the pavement condition index of the airfield features and for performing the initial implementation of the PAVER pavement manage...

AIRNow AQI Forecasting (Air Quality Index Forecasting)...................................13 .... of climate, weather, and natural hazards for pres- ent and future .... Improve visibility and reduce haze for tourism; Improve resiliency of crops; increase yields ...

Purpose: To test the feasibility of creating a comparative index of national-level .... OCEAN > PACIFIC OCEAN > SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN > POLYNESIA > WALLIS AND .... CIESIN > Environmental Protection > Atmospheric Composition > Air Pollution ... CIESIN > Industry and Energy > Energy Production > Nuclear Wastes ...

Some of the lowest voltages used in radiotherapy are termed Grenz and superficial X-rays of ~ 20 and ~ 100 kVp, respectively. Dosimetrically, the surface doses from these beams are calculated with the use of a free in-air air kerma measurement combined with a backscatter factor and the appropriate ratio of mass energy absorption coefficients from the measurement material to water. Alternative tools to the standard ion chamber for measuring the BSF are GAFCHROMIC EBT2 film and optically stimulated luminescent dosimeter (OSLD) crystals made from Al2O3. The scope of this project included making three different backscatter measurements with an Xstrahl-D3100 X-ray unit on the Grenz ray and superficial settings. These measurements were with OSLDs, GAFCHROMIC EBT2 film, and a PTW ionization chamber. The varied measurement methods allowed for intercomparison to determine the accuracy of the results. The ion chamber measurement was the least accurate, as expected from previous experimental findings. GAFCHROMIC EBT2 film proved to be a useful tool which gave reasonable results, and Landauer OSLDs showed good results for smaller field sizes and an increasing overresponse with larger fields. The specific backscatter factors for this machine demonstrated values about 5% higher than the universal values suggested by the AAPM and IPEMB codes of practice for the 100 kVp setting. The 20 kvp measured data from both techniques showed general agreement with those found in the BJR Supplement No. 10, indicating that this unit's Grenz ray spectrum is similar to those used in previous experimental work. PMID:23149776

Evidence that heat wave events are associated with poor air quality conditions and health hazards has become stronger in recent years. In this study, the impact of two heat wave episodes on human thermal discomfort and air quality is examined during summer 2007, in an industrial plain of eastern Mediterranean: the Thriassion Plain, Greece. For this purpose, two biometeorological indices—Discomfort Index (DI) and Heat Load (HL)—as well as an air quality index—Air Quality Stress Index (AQSI)—were calculated using data from seven measuring sites. A land-use map was procured in order to examine the effect of different land cover types on human thermal comfort. The results indicated high level of thermal discomfort and increased air pollution levels, while a significant correlation between the DI and the AQSI was identified.

Thick target 7Li(p,n) neutron spectra were measured using a 3He ion chamber in the proton energy range of 1.95 to 2.30 MeV. The fast neutron spectra were collected for various distances from the lithium target as well as for various neutron emission angles. By unfolding the 3He raw data with the iterative van Cittert algorithm, the neutron fluence spectra were obtained. The 3He measured neutron spectra were compared with both analytically computed and Monte Carlo simulated spectra to account for neutron scatterings in the lithium target assembly and in the experimental area. To verify the accuracy of the neutron dose computation, the fast neutron kerma was obtained for each neutron spectrum using the fluence to kerma conversion coefficients and was compared with the measured neutron dose using tissue-equivalent proportional counters. In the position dependence investigation at the 0° emission angle, the analytically computed neutron kerma overestimates the experimental kerma by a factor of two mainly due to neutron moderation. The corresponding neutron kerma from the 3He measured spectra were in agreement with the neutron doses measured using tissue-equivalent proportional counters within 20% for lower proton energies, but the discrepancy increased to ?50% for higher proton energies. In the angular distribution investigation, a notable discrepancy between measured and computed neutron spectra were observed due to the neutron scattering effects in the target assembly and experimental room.

In this simple demonstration, learners investigate the properties of air pressure. Learners place an index card on top of a glass full of water, then invert the glass. The surface tension of the water and air pressure keep the card in place.

Radiation protection has been more important over the years.The doses in routine examinations of the abdomen, using dose modulation system, increased significantly. As the computed tomography is a technique of high-dose radiation when compared with other imaging techniques.This project was developed in a clinic in Rio de Janeiro. The scanner was Philips Brilliance 64.The systems of automatic control exposure were evaluated, taking into account the levels of noise factors and the techniques used in routine examinations of the abdomen. In tests, the patient doses were compared to reference dose of Impact, the information in the console. Also was evaluate the different results using the dosimetric phantoms oval and elliptical. The values obtained for the weighted indices of kerma, kerma product volume and product kerma scan showed all was below the same when done with dose modulation. (author)

The purpose of a monitoring program is to determine compliance with provincial air quality criteria and also to measure the impact of the industrial development on the local air quality. Contaminants which may enter the area from outside sources are also identified. This summary is for the air quality of the City of Nanticoke in 1992. It presents an analysis of data on sulphur dioxide, sulfer, nitrogen, the ozone, suspended particulates, dustfall and fluoridation, as well as a soiling index.

Gafchromic XR-RV2 is a revised version of the obsolete Gafchromic XR-R-type radiochromic film. This article investigates the dose response, energy response, postexposure growth, and polarizing effects of this film after exposure to ionizing radiation in the diagnostic energy range. The effect of bit depth on scanning was also investigated. Films were scanned using an Epson Expression 10000XL document scanner or an X-Rite model 301 spot densitometer. Color channel analysis was performed. The film showed usable response in the air kerma range of 1-1000 cGy, although by 1500 cGy the film appeared saturated when using the red color channel on a document scanner. The film response varied by 11% between 60 and 96 kVp and 3.5% between 96 and 125 kVp for doses above 1 Gy. Postexposure growth was found to be approximately logarithmic and fairly stable after 24 h. Films stored under office lighting exhibited around twice the density growth compared with film stored in a dark environment. The film showed strong orientation dependence when scanned using a polarized light source. A 48 bit scan provided no increase in sensitivity over 24 bits. Gafchromic XR-RV2 film is a radiochromic film ideally suited for measurement of wide dose ranges at diagnostic energies. The energy dependence of this film limits its accuracy for dosimetry of unknown energy beams. For the document scanners used in this study a 24 bit scan was more than sufficient compared to a 48 bit scan. This is likely to be the case for most document scanners where electrical noise prevents higher bit depths from increasing the sensitivity of measurements. PMID:19673204

The implementation of contrast-enhanced dual-energy digital subtraction mammography may lead to better identification of breast tumors, and thus provide a lower cost and more widely available alternative to breast MRI. This technique involves the acquisition of low- and high-energy images after the IV administration of iodinated contrast agent. In this study, the effect of the beam energy (kVp) was examined using the CNR2/dose metric, where CNR is the contrast-to-noise ratio and dose implies the mean glandular dose. The mean glandular dose was calculated using parameterized normalized glandular dose coefficients (DgN), which allowed the computation of the mean glandular dose for the modeled spectra considered in this study, coupled with incident kerma measurements. Optimization studies were performed using a dedicated cone-beam breast CT scanner designed and fabricated in our laboratory, with the system operating in stationary imaging mode. A flat tissue-equivalent phantom (7.5 cm in thickness) was placed at the isocenter of the scanner, and an air gap of 34.5 cm was used in lieu of a grid. Dilute iodine-based contrast agent was introduced into the phantoms using plastic vials. Data were acquired from 40 to 90 kVp at 10 kVp intervals. Due to the low mA available on the breast CT system, a large number of images (1000) were acquired in fluoroscopic mode, which allowed us to match the dose and noise properties for each kVp combinations by changing the number of images used for averaging. Preliminary results demonstrate that the best CNR2/dose is achieved with a 50 kVp low-energy image and a 90 kVp high-energy image. Consequently, radiation doses for contrast-enhanced mammography should be far lower than regular mammography. Since the spatial resolution requirements should also be lower than regular mammography, dual-energy contrast-enhanced mammography, when performed using the optimal technique factor, may indeed provide very similar diagnostic information as breast MRI but at significantly reduced costs.

We propose, apply and validate an optimization scheme for a new wireless CsI based DR detector in combination with a regular mobile X-ray system for bedside imaging applications. Three different grids were tested in this combination. Signal-difference-to-noise was investigated in two ways, using a 1mm Cu piece in combination with different thicknesses of PMMA and by means of the CDRAD phantom using 10 images per condition and an automated evaluation method. A Figure of Merit (FOM), namely SDNR2/Imparted Energy, was calculated for a large range of exposure conditions, without and with grid in place. Misalignment of the grids was evaluated via the same FOMs. This optimization study was validated with comparative X-ray acquisitions performed on dead bodies. An experienced radiologist scored the quality of several specific aspects for all these exposures. Signal difference to noise ratios measured with the Cu method correlated well with the threshold contrasts from the CDRAD analysis (R2 > 0.9). The analysis showed optimal FOM with detector air kerma rates as typically used in clinical practice. Lower tube voltages provide higher FOM than the higher values but their practical use depends on the limitations of X-ray tubes, linked to patient motion artefacts. The use of high resolution grids should be encouraged, as the FOM increases with 47% at 75kV. These scores from the Visual grading study confirmed the results obtained with the FOM. The switch to (wireless) DR technology for bedside imaging could benefit from devices to improve grid positioning or any scatter reduction technique.

A study on the fabrication of a new personal thermo-luminescence dosimeter, which can evaluate the personal dose equivalent H{sub p}(d), has been performed. Optimum conditions for fabrication of a LiF:Mg,Cu,Na,Si TL phosphor powder has been determined and a disc type TL pellet has been fabricated from this TL powder. Another type of CaSO{sub 4}:Dy,Mo TL material has been also fabricated. These two TL materials have shown greater TL sensitivity than the foreign-made commercial TL materials. Mono-energetic fluorescence X-ray from 8.6 keV to 75 keV for use in performance testing of the developed TLDs energy response have been constructed and evaluated for the performance of the purity, air kerma, beam uniformity and distribution, and scattered fraction of X-rays. Reference neutron field of a D{sub 2}O moderated {sup 252}Cf source was characterized and the irradiation system using {sup 226}Ra and {sup 137}Cs sources was installed to construct the environmental gamma reference radiation and the low-level gamma radiation. A capability of calibration and measurement of KAERI In Vivo counting system for transuranic elements in the lung has been evaluated through the participation in the overseas intercomparison study on the In Vivo radioactivity measurement. An improvement and advancement of KAERI lung counting technology have been made by the analysis off uncertainties from the assumption of uniform radioactivity distribution in the lung, experimental determination and comparing of detection efficiency with different lung sets, and mathematical efficiency calibration of In Vivo counting system. (author)

The nuclear workers of the Mayak Production Association had regular check-ups including medical diagnostic X-ray examinations since start of the production lines in 1948. Doses from diagnostic examinations need to be considered in reconstruction of occupational doses of the workers with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) of tooth enamel. The numbers and types of examinations of an individual worker can be assessed from the Mayak PA archives but no information was available on doses delivered to teeth by a single specific examination. Of the twenty one applied examination procedures only three affected the teeth, these being X-ray examinations of teeth, skull and cervical spine. For these three kinds of examinations operational procedures and operating modes of X-ray units were compiled from the archive and photon spectra were obtained from a catalog of spectral data for diagnostic X-rays. Entrance doses in air kerma were calculated using the fluence of photon spectra and absorbed dose in tooth enamel for various tooth positions and exposure geometry was then calculated using dose conversion coefficients obtained from Monte Carlo simulations. Doses were calculated for examinations in 1948-2000. Except for examination of the skull, absorbed doses in enamel of incisors were found to be about twice as large as in enamel of molars. In the period before 1970 the largest mean absorbed doses in tooth enamel were due to X-ray examination of teeth, with 64 mGy and 34 mGy calculated for incisors and molars, respectively. In the same period the lowest mean doses were due to X-ray examination of the skull, with 11 mGy and 12 mGy calculated for incisors and molars, respectively. In the period from 1970 to 2000, largest mean doses in enamel were due to X-ray examination of cervical spine, with 23 mGy and 12 mGy calculated for incisors and molars, respectively.

The American Association of Physicists in Medicine Task Group 43 report, AAPM TG-43, provides an analytical model and a dosimetry protocol for brachytherapy dose calculations, as well as documentation and results for some sealed sources. The radionuclide {sup 198}Au (T{sub 1/2} = 2.70 days, E{gamma} = 412 keV) has been used in the form of seeds for brachytherapy treatments including brain, eye, and prostate tumors. However, the TG-43 report has no data for {sup 198}Au seeds, and none have previously been obtained. For that reason, and because of the conversion of most treatment planning systems to TG-43 based methods, both Monte Carlo calculations (MCNP 4C) and thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) are used in this work to determine these data. The geometric variation in dose is measured using an array of TLDs in a solid water phantom, and the seed activity is determined using both a well ion chamber and a High Purity Germanium detector (HPGe). The results for air kerma strength, S{sub k}, per unit apparent activity, are 2.06 (MCNP) and 2.09 (measured) U mCi{sup -1}. The former is identical to what was published in 1991 in the AAPM Task Group 32 report. The dose rate constant results, {Lambda}, are 1.12 (MCNP) and 1.10 (measured), cGy h{sup -1} U{sup -1}. The radial dose function, g(r), anisotropy function, F(r,{theta}), and anisotropy factor, {psi}{sub an}(r), are given. The anisotropy constant values are 0.973 (MCNP) and 0.994 (measured) and are consistent with both source geometry and the emitted photon energy.

Monte Carlo calculations and TLD measurements have been performed for the purpose of characterizing dosimetric properties of new commercially available brachytherapy sources. All sources tested consisted of a solid core, upon which a thin layer of 125I has been adsorbed, encased within a titanium housing. The PharmaSeed BT-125 source manufactured by Syncor is available in silver or palladium core configurations while the ADVANTAGE source from IsoAid has silver only. Dosimetric properties, including the dose rate constant, radial dose function, and anisotropy characteristics were determined according to the TG-43 protocol. Additionally, the geometry function was calculated exactly using Monte Carlo and compared with both the point and line source approximations. The 1999 NIST standard was followed in determining air kerma strength. Dose rate constants were calculated to be 0.955+/-0.005, 0.967+/-0.005, and 0.962+/-0.005 cGy h(-1) x U(-1) for the PharmaSeed BT-125-1, BT-125-2, and ADVANTAGE sources, respectively. TLD measurements were in excellent agreement with Monte Carlo calculations. Radial dose function, g(r), calculated to a distance of 10 cm, and anisotropy function, F(r,theta), calculated for radii from 0.5 to 7.0 cm, were similar among all source configurations. Anisotropy constants, phi(an), were calculated to be 0.941, 0.944, and 0.960 for the three sources, respectively. All dosimetric parameters were found to be in close agreement with previously published data for similar source configurations. The MCNP Monte Carlo code appears to be ideally suited to low energy dosimetry applications. PMID:11958652

Comparison of radiation exposure between a digital amorphous silicon and a screen-film based mammography system. Evaluation of a possible potential of full-field digital mammography in order to decrease the radiation dose. Methods: The average glandular dose for phantom thicknesses from 30 to 60 mm was calculated from experimentally determined entrance surface air kerma for a digital and a conventional mammography system. The effect of reducing the detector dose and of changing the radiation quality on radiation exposure and on image quality were investigated. Results: By using the delivered settings of the automatic exposure control (AEC) devices, both mammographic systems needed nearly the same doses. Regulations and guidelines on radiation doses were complied. With the digital system, a reduction of radiation exposure of up to 40% by using a higher radiation quality and decreasing slightly the detector dose without loss of diagnostic image quality, might be possible. Conclusion: The potential of full-field digital mammography for radiation dose reduction, as shown in the present phantom study, needs however, a careful examination under clinical conditions. (orig.) [German] Vergleich der Strahlenexposition bei digitaler Vollfeldmammographie mit einem Flachdetektor aus amorphem Silizium und konventioneller Film-Folien-Mammographie. Ermittlung eines etwaigen Potenzials zur Dosisreduzierung bei dem digitalen System. Material und Methoden: Als Kenngroesse fuer die Strahlenexposition wird die mittlere Parenchymdosis fuer PMMA-Schichtdicken zwischen 30 und 60 mm mit einem digitalen und einem konventionellen Mammographiegeraet ermittelt. Die Auswirkungen einer Senkung der Bildempfaengerdosis und der Verwendung einer haerteren Roentgenstrahlung auf die Strahlenexposition wird unter Beruecksichtigung der Bildguete ermittelt. Ergebnisse: das digitale Mammographiesystem arbeitet bei Einsatz der vom Hersteller eingestellten Belichtungsautomatik mit nahezu identischer Dosis wie das konventionelle System. Dosisvorgaben aus Verordnungen und Leitlinien werden erfuellt. Eine Reduzierung der Strahlenexposition um 30-40% durch Verwendung einer haerteren Strahlung und eine geringfuegige Reduzierung der Detektordosis ist im Phantomversuch bei unveraenderter diagnostischer Bildqualitaet moeglich. Schlussfolgerung: die im Phantomversuch ermittelte Moeglichkeit zur Dosisreduktion bei der digitalen Vollfeldmammographie muss unter Beachtung klinischethischer Gesichtspunkte in der Diagnostik sorgfaeltig ueberprueft werden. (orig.)

The absorbed dose delivered to the patient in brachytherapy is directly proportional to the source strength in terms of the reference air-kerma rate (RAKR). Verification of this quantity by the hospitals is widely recognized as an important part of a quality assurance program. An external audit was performed on behalf of the Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory at the Swedish Radiation Protection Authority (SSI). The aim was to investigate how accurately the source-strength in 192Ir brachytherapy is determined at Swedish hospitals. The SSI reference well-type ion chamber and calibrated equipment were used to measure the RAKR of an 192Ir source in each of the 14 Swedish afterloading units. Comparisons with values determined by vendors and hospitals were made. Agreement in values of RAKR as determined by SSI, hospitals and vendors were in all cases within the +-3% uncertainty (at a coverage factor of k=2), typically guaranteed by the vendors. The good agreement reflects the robustness and easy handling of well-type chambers designed for brachytherapy in use by all Swedish hospitals. The 192Ir calibration service planned at SSI will solve the hospitals current problem with recalibration of equipment. SSI can also advise hospitals to follow the IAEA recommendations for measurement techniques and maintenance of equipment. It is worthwhile for the hospitals to establish their own ratio (or deviation) with the vendor and follow it as function of time. Such a mean-ratio embeds systematic differences of various origins and have a lower uncertainty than has the RAKR alone, making it useful for early detection of problems with equipment or routines. SSI could also define requirements for the agreement between source strengths as determined by hospitals and vendors and couple this to an action plan, dependent on level of disagreement, and some kind of reporting to SSI

A new method for relating airborne gamma-ray spectra to dose rates and kerma rates at ground level is presented. Dependent on flying altitude 50 m to 125 m the method gives correct results for gamma energies above 250 keV respective 350 keV. At lower energies the method underestimate the dose or kerma rates; by having a large fraction of the ground level gamma-rays at energies below 350 keV special care should be taken at an interpretation of the results.

Brown coal unusually rich in uranium is burnt in a coal-fired power plant that lies inside the confines of a small industrial town named Ajka, Hungary, and has been operational since 1943. The 238U (226Ra) activity discharged to the atmosphere per unit electrical energy produced was about 330-400 GBq (GW y)(-1), which is 66-80 times more than that was estimated by UNSCEAR (1988) as a characteristic value for old type coal-fired power plants [5 GBq (GW y)(-1)]. The objective of this study was the experimentally established assessment of the artificial increment in the dose from external exposure to gamma rays of terrestrial radionuclides outdoors. Soil samples were collected in and near Ajka from 81 locations. The samples were investigated by Ge(Li) gamma spectrometry. Considerably elevated concentrations of uranium and its progeny have been measured in most of the samples that were collected near to the plant. Concentrations of 238U and 226Ra in the top (0-5 cm depth) layer of undisturbed soil at public areas inside town were 4.7 times higher, on average, than those in the uncontaminated deeper layers. Dose rate in air (air kerma) from external exposure to terrestrial gamma rays outdoors at a height of 1 m and effective doses were estimated from the measured activity concentrations using some relevant literature data. The estimated artificial increment in the dose rate in air was, on average, 32.8, 10.3, and 102.1 nGy h(-1) at public areas, vegetable gardens, and backyards, respectively. The mean artificial increment in the annual per caput effective dose from external exposure to terrestrial radionuclides outdoors is 21.8 microSv y(-1). The collective dose commitment per unit energy generated from outdoor exposure to the deposited uranium progeny is about 8.0-9.1 person Sv (GW y)(-1), which is 67-76 times more than that evaluated by UNSCEAR (1988) for a typical "old" coal-fired power plant [0.12 person Sv (GW y)(-1)]. Ajka is a suitable place for studying the dosimetric consequences of the utilization of coal for energy production experimentally. PMID:12822580

Enhancement of light outcoupling into substrate modes by a grid of low-refractive-index material embedded into the organic layer of an organic light-emitting device (OLED) is analyzed using full-wave electromagnetic simulations. The low-index grid (LIG) redirects modes normally trapped within the high-index organic and indium tin oxide layers (waveguide modes) into the substrate where they can be further extracted into free space using methods such as microlens arrays or roughened surfaces. This increases the external quantum and power efficiencies without affecting the electroluminescent spectrum. The dependence on grid geometry, dimensions, and refractive index is explored to optimize the structure. Simulations show that up to 50% more light can be extracted from the high-index region using an ultralow-index (n=1.03) grid than a conventional device, and provided efficient substrate-to-air outcoupling, the external quantum efficiencies of LIG OLEDs can reach >50%.

Hot air assisted infrared (IR) drying of potato and carrot is carried out and product quality is compared with hot air dried samples. The synergistic effect of hot air and IR during combined mode (hot air assisted IR) drying reduced the processing time by nearly 48% as compared to hot air drying alone, besides improving the quality of products. Higher rehydration ratio and lower browning index values are observed for combined mode dried products. Photomicrographs of dehydrated carrot and potato showed superiority of product structure for combined mode dried products. The IR dried carrot had higher (by 17%) retention of carotenoid than hot air dried sample. The processing conditions such as velocity and temperature of air affected the drying characteristics during combined mode drying. Higher values of effective diffusivity of water are observed with combined mode drying.   

Radiation doses delivered to 461 patients were measured during the period of 12 months in a hospital in Khartoum, Sudan. Kerma Area Product, Cumulative Kerma and fluoroscopy time were registered during four selected procedures, namely coronary angiography (CA), percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA), percutaneous transvenous mitral commissurotomy (PTMC) and pacemaker. For CA, PTCA, PTMC and pacemaker the mean and median kerma area product values in gray centimeter square were found to be (20, 17.9), (56.5, 50.3), (21.6, 19.6) and (15.3, 9.6), respectively. The obtained results for mean and median cumulative kerma in milli gray were (143.7, 120.5), (418.4, 371.4), (119.8, 102) and (88.7, 59.8) as measured for CA, PTCA, PTMC and pacemaker, respectively. The mean and median total fluoroscopy time in minutes were (5.2, 3.39), (17.6, 14.8), (18, 15) and (10.2, 7.16) as registered for CA, PTCA, PTMA and pacemaker, respectively. Maximum skin dose was estimated for 13 patients during PTCA and CA procedures. Dose exceeded 2 Gy in PTCA for one patient. In comparison with the guidelines for coronary examinations suggested by SENTINEL Consortium, a higher fluoroscopy time for PTCA procedure is reported in this study. It is realised that proper selection of irradiation area, technique modes, fluoroscopy time and conducting special training on radiation protection to the operators are the main factors for potential optimisation. PMID:22791837

In this work is estimated variance kerma function pixel values for the real response curve nonlinear digital image system, without resorting to any approximation to the behavior of the detector. This result is compared with that obtained for the linearized version of the response curve.

Purpose  To assess patient skin and eye lens doses in interventional neuroradiology and to assess both stochastic and deterministic radiation risks. Methods  Kerma–area product (P KA) was recorded and skin doses measured using thermoluminescence dosimeters. Estimated dose at interventional reference...

Cone-beam breast Computed Tomography (bCT) is an X-ray imaging technique for breast cancer diagnosis, in principle capable of delivering a much more homogeneous dose spatial pattern to the breast volume than conventional mammography, at dose levels comparable to two-view mammography. We present an investigation of the three-dimensional dose distribution for a cone-beam CT system dedicated to breast imaging. We employed Monte Carlo simulations for estimating the dose deposited within a breast phantom having a hemiellipsoidal shape placed on a cylinder of 3.5 cm thickness that simulates the chest wall. This phantom represents a pendulant breast in a bCT exam with the average diameter at chest wall, assumed to correspond to a 5-cm-thick compressed breast in mammography. The phantom is irradiated in a circular orbit with an X-ray cone beam selected from four different techniques: 50, 60, 70, and 80 kVp from a tube with tungsten anode, 1.8 mm Al inherent filtration and additional filtration of 0.2 mm Cu. Using the Monte Carlo code GEANT4 we simulated a system similar to the experimental apparatus available in our lab. Simulations were performed at a constant free-in-air air kerma at the isocenter (1 ?Gy); the corresponding total number of photon histories per scan was 288 million at 80 kVp. We found that the more energetic beams provide a more uniform dose distribution than at low energy: the 50 kVp beam presents a frequency distribution of absorbed dose values with a coefficient of variation almost double than that for the 80 kVp beam. This is confirmed by the analysis of the relative dose profiles along the radial (i.e. parallel to the "chest wall") and longitudinal (i.e. from "chest wall" to "nipple") directions. Maximum radial deviations are on the order of 25% for the 80 kVp beam, whereas for the 50 kVp beam variations around 43% were observed, with the lowest dose values being found along the central longitudinal axis of the phantom. PMID:22763280

The environmental parameters of refractive index of air and their effect on the cross-correlation model between femtosecond pulses propagation in air were discussed. Using the dispersion pulse propagation theory, the equation of cross-correlation between femtosecond pulses was obtained and the relation between the cross-correlation with the environmental parameters was established. Results show that the change of the atmospheric conditions gives rise to the change of the group refractive index, and then contributes to the shift of the correlations patterns without any extra linear broadening or chirp.

Abstract Scanning electron microcopy of the wing scales from some specific locations in the silk moth, Antheraea assamensis, revealed the presence of 50-60-nm-thick microridges and 80-nm-thick air spaces between them. The principle of optics suggests that when the measured average thickness of microridges or lamellae is about 50-60 nm, that of the air-space between them is about 80-82 nm, then due to the known refractive index of air (1.0) and the infrared refractive index of lamellar cuticle (1.60), the lamellae (microridges) and the intervening lamellar air spaces will have similar optical thickness. A common optical thickness for the two types of layers causes the microridge structures to function in the fashion of a quarter wavelength interference filter and to reflect UV light. Behavi...

Bio-climate is considered as a combination among the vegetation area and climatic elements with indexes: temperature, precipitations, wind, air humidity etc. This combination creates a complete, continued and stable view of an area or some ecologic areas in relation to indexes of bio-climate content elements. Dajt ecosystem is situated at ''the heart'' of Albania. From the sea level is situated Vora with altitude 50 m and the most altitude is the top of Dajt mountain with 1600 m. The eco-climatic indexes are obtained based on real measurements from observations on meteorologic stations for some decades. The basic indexes are: sunning, month temperatures, precipitations and air relative humidity. Based on obtained results from the data processing according to Emberger and Rivas S. Martinez's Method, and the discussions about the study ''Bioclimatic evaluations in the mountainous ecosystem of Dajt-Tirana'' is concluded: 1. The index Q is oscillated from 142, to 205,7. For Tirana eco zone (the humid variant of bioclimatic) Q values are over 90. 2. The index Ic. The continental index is oscillated from 26,4 to 29,3. The ecosystem of Dajt-Tirana based on index Ic or continental index is evaluated on sub Continental-Continental-Mediterranean macroclimate. The changes among the studied microzone results with a little climate change and are part of a bioclimatic type. 3. The index It. The termotipos index is oscillated from 381 to 456. Dajt eco-zone based on index It is considerate with termotemplado micro-bio-climate, in which take parts: Fushe-Dajt, Rreze-Dajt and infratemplado ones in which take parts Lineza. 4. The index Io. The ombrotipos index is oscillated from 2,2 to 3,7. Tirana eco-zone based on index Io is considerate with a dry Semiarido micro-bio-climate 2.0-3.6, in which take parts: Fushe-Dajt, Rreze-Dajt, Linez. 5. Evaluation of micro-zones ecoclimatic indexes The minimal average temperature on Rreze-Dajt results--2.6 C. The minimal average annual temperature on Rreze-Dajt results 10.2 C. The minimal average monthly precipitation on Rreze-Dajt results 1558 mm.

The 21st meeting of the Department of Energy/Nuclear Regulatory Commission (DOE/NRC) Nuclear Air Cleaning Conference was held in San Diego, CA on August 13--16, 1990. The proceedings have been published as a two volume set. Volume 2 contains sessions covering adsorbents, nuclear codes and standards, modelling, filters, safety, containment venting and a review of nuclear air cleaning programs around the world. Also included is the list of attendees and an index of authors and speakers. (MHB)

Liquid core waveguides are fabricated from a self-assembled nanoporous polymer, with a porosity of 40%. The high porosity results in an effective refractive index of 1.26 for visible light, i.e. below the refractive index of aqueous solutions. However, since the polymer is hydrophobic, fluids to not initially penetrate into the pores. We show that the inner surface of the pores can be rendered selectively hydrophilic by exposing them to ultraviolet light thorough a photo mask1. As liquids infiltrate the exposed regions and replace air, the refractive index is raised to 1.42, and thus these areas can function as liquid core waveguides. Fig. 1 illustrates this principle.

The objectives of air distribution systems for warm air heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning are to create the proper thermal environment conditions in the occupied zone (combination of temperature, humidity, and air movement), and to control vapor and air born particle concentration within the target levels set by the process requirements and/or threshold limit values based on health effects, fire and explosion prevention, or other considerations. HVAC systems designs are constrained by existing codes, standards, and guidelines, which specify some minimum requirements for the HVAC system elements, occupant`s and process environmental quality and safety. There is a variety of different methods consulting engineers use to design room air diffusion and to select and size air diffusers, such as assumption of perfect mixing, design methods employing the empirical relations determined through research, such as the air diffusion performance index (ADPI), air jet theory and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) codes. Air supplied into the room through the various types of outlets (grills, ceiling mounted air diffusers, perforated panels etc.), is distributed by turbulent air jets. In mixing type air distribution systems, these air jets are the primary factor affecting room air motion. Numerous theoretical and experimental studies that developed a solid base for turbulent air jets theory were conducted concurrently in different countries (Germany, Sweden, Russia, U.K., USA) from the 1930`s through the 1980`s. Design methods based on air jet theory allows for the prediction of extreme values of air velocities and air temperatures in the occupied zone of empty spaces. Current air jet theory techniques account for the effects of buoyancy, confinement, jets interaction. For many conditions of jet discharge, it is possible to analyze jet performance and determine: the angle of divergence of the jet boundary; the velocity patterns along heated or chilled the jet axis; the velocity and temperature profile at any cross section in the zone of maximum engineering importance; the entrainment ratios in the same zone; the jet trajectory; the vertically projected or inclined air jet throw; the separation point of the jet from the surface; influence of confinement on jet behavior; the multiple jet interaction. The results of most analytical and experimental studies has been received in empty rooms and do not reflect the influence of the obstructions on the air distribution and ventilation efficiency. Information on the influence of obstructions on room air distribution is limited. Attempts has been made to utilize statistical data from the occupied zone conditions in order to extend predictions from extreme parameters to the rest of the occupied zone. The efficiency of the ventilation can be analyzed using zonal models. (orig.) 380 refs.

Subway systems are considered as main public transportation facility in developed countries. Time spent by people in indoors, such as underground spaces, subway stations, and indoor buildings, has gradually increased in the recent past. Especially, operators or old persons who stay in indoor environments more than 15 hr per day usually influenced a greater extent by indoor air pollutants. Hence, regulations on indoor air pollutants are needed to ensure good health of people. Therefore, in this study, a new cumulative calculation method for the estimation of total amounts of indoor air pollutants emitted inside the subway station is proposed by taking cumulative amounts of indoor air pollutants based on integration concept. Minimum concentration of individual air pollutants which naturally exist in indoor space is referred as base concentration of air pollutants and can be found from the data collected. After subtracting the value of base concentration from data point of each data set of indoor air pollutant, the primary quantity of emitted air pollutant is calculated. After integration is carried out with these values, adding the base concentration to the integration quantity gives the total amount of indoor air pollutant emitted. Moreover the values of new index for cumulative indoor air quality obtained for 1 day are calculated using the values of cumulative air quality index (CAI). Cumulative comprehensive indoor air quality index (CCIAI) is also proposed to compare the values of cumulative concentrations of indoor air pollutants. From the results, it is clear that the cumulative assessment approach of indoor air quality (IAQ) is useful for monitoring the values of total amounts of indoor air pollutants emitted, in case of exposure to indoor air pollutants for a long time. Also, the values of CCIAI are influenced more by the values of concentration of NO2, which is released due to the use of air conditioners and combustion of the fuel. The results obtained in this study confirm that the proposed method can be applied to monitor total amounts of indoor air pollutants emitted, inside apartments and hospitals as well. Implications: Nowadays, subway systems are considered as main public transportation facility in developed countries. Time spent by people in indoors, such as underground spaces, subway stations, and indoor buildings, has gradually increased in the recent past. Especially, operators or old persons who stay in the indoor environments more than 15 hr per day usually influenced a greater extent by indoor air pollutants. Hence, regulations on indoor air pollutants are needed to ensure good health of people. Therefore, this paper presents a new methodology for monitoring and assessing total amounts of indoor air pollutants emitted inside underground spaces and subway stations. A new methodology for the calculation of cumulative amounts of indoor air pollutants based on integration concept is proposed. The results suggest that the cumulative assessment approach of IAQ is useful for monitoring the values of total amounts of indoor air pollutants, if indoor air pollutants accumulated for a long time, especially NO2 pollutants. The results obtained here confirm that the proposed method can be applied to monitor total amounts of indoor air pollutants emitted, inside apartments and hospitals as well. PMID:22696802

Abstract in portuguese OBJETIVO: Investigar o efeito da adição de filtros de alumínio (1 mm) e cobre (0,4 mm) na redução das doses efetivas de radiação e na qualidade das imagens em exames videofluoroscópicos. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Ao tubo de raios X adicionou-se câmara de ionização conectada a um eletrômetro para medir o produto kerma-área, com técnica de 65 kVp e 0,7 mA, sem e com adição dos filtros. Foi medida resolução espacial, a de baixo contraste e tons de cinza, utiliz (more) ando os objetos de teste de Leeds. Quinze voluntários tiveram o produto kerma-área/minuto do estudo faríngeo comparados, dez com filtração e base e cinco com adição dos filtros associados. RESULTADOS: A adição dos filtros separados ou associados produziu expressiva redução do produto kerma-área, com ganho na qualidade das imagens videofluoroscópicas determinado pela maior separação dos tons de cinza e aumento da relação brilho/contraste da curva de cinza. CONCLUSÃO: A interposição adicional de filtros de alumínio e cobre, em especial quando associados, melhora a qualidade das imagens, com expressiva redução das doses de radiação necessárias à sua geração. Abstract in english OBJECTIVE: The purpose of thys study was to investigate the effect of the addition of aluminum (1 mm) and copper (0.4 mm) filters on effective radiation doses and image quality in videofluoroscopy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An ionization chamber coupled with an electrometer was added to x-ray tube to measure the kerma area product with 65 kV and 0.7 mA technique, without and with additional filtration. Low contrast, gray scale and spatial resolution were measured utilizing L (more) eeds test objects. Fifteen volunteers underwent pharynx study, ten without and five with aluminum and cooper filters associated, and had the kerma area product/minute compared. RESULTS: The specified filters addition, either separated or associated, allowed an expressive decrease in kerma area product besides an actual improvement in the videofluoroscopic images quality determined by a better gray tones differentiation and increased brightness contrast ratio in the gray curve. CONCLUSION: Additional aluminum and copper filters interposition, especially when associated, results in improved image quality with expressive reduction in the required radiation doses.

A compilation of materials, equipment, design and the author's knowledge from years of experience in both pneumatic and hydraulic conveying of solids. It is geared to plant management, operations, and service departments for upkeep and improvement of existing systems. Contents: Positive pressure pneumatic conveying systems. Common pneumatic conveying equipment. Air gravity conveyors. Sluice systems. Sumps and sump pumps. Material disposal. Index.

Natural gas supplied to industry for process utilizations originates from different sources and that can cause fluctuations in gas composition. Changing gas composition may lead to production problems in industry with sensitive thermal processes (particularly glass industry and thermal metal treatments), such as efficiency and product quality. An equipment suitable to control and adjust such variations has been developed. Experimental tests in laboratory were carried out in order to investigate the control system accuracy and reliability. In particular five different settings were tested: at a preset thermal input by adjusting the natural gas flow rate in respect to Wobbe Index variations; at a set furnace temperature and stack oxygen level with variable thermal input by monitoring the Wobbe Index value; at constant Wobbe Index value by adding air to natural gas; at constant thermal input and prefixed Wobbe Index value by adding air to natural gas and varying the air and gas mixture flow rate; gross calorific value control by adding air or LPG to natural gas. All the tested settings gave good results. This report illustrates these results and the main features of the control system. The control and regulation system was installed in two glass factories for field tests. (authors)

This symposium proceedings on power generation facilities to meet peak demand of the utilities consists of 7 papers. Energy storage by compressed air and by inertial flywheel, thermal energy storage, and utilities management to meet peak loads are considered. All papers are abstracted and indexed separately.

Insulin resistance and impaired beta-cell function are key elements in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. We aimed to develop valid algorithms for estimation of the insulin sensitivity index (S(I)) and acute insulin response (AIR) derived from simple and cheap physiological measurements that could be used in large-scale metabolic, genetic, and epidemiological studies.

A pavement condition survey was performed on the South Base airfield at Edwards Air Force Base, CA, in August 1989 for the purpose of determining the pavement condition index of the airfield features and for performing the initial implementation of the PA...

Covered are: Leclanche carbon - zinc and zinc chloride batteries. Alkaline - manganese batteries. Mercury - zinc and other mercury types of battery. Manganese dioxide - magnesium perchlorate batteries. Zinc - air cells. Lithium - based systems. Lithium - iodine batteries. High-temperature thermally activated reserve batteries. Water-activated batteries. Ammonia reserve batteries. Index.

Corneal analysis is usually done under two assumptions: first it is considered as a single surface that separates air from a medium with an equivalent keratometric index. The analysis is done under exact ray tracing, which leads to a non-uniformly sampled output pattern. In this paper we analyze bot...

The bibliography contains citations concerning the formation, environmental transport, and degradation of dioxins. Formation by combustion is examined. Dioxin emission monitoring studies of municipal and industrial boilers are included. Dioxin level monitoring in humans, air, soil, and water is discussed. Methods of dioxin destruction discussed include controlled combustion and ultraviolet radiation. (Contains 250 citations and includes a subject term index and title list.)

Results of field experiments for the detection of clear air disturbance and low level wind shear utilizing an infrared airborne system are given in vugraph form. The hits, misses and nuisance alarms scores are given. Information is given on the infrared spatial resolution technique. The popular index of aircraft hazard (F= WX over g - VN over AS) is developed for a remote temperature sensor.

The aim of the study was to develop a Quality Index Method (QIM) scheme for maatjes herring stored in air and under a modified atmosphere at 4°C and 10°C. The attributes included in this new scheme are: appearance of skin side and bone side, color of the blood, odor (rancidity and other), taste (ran...

The bibliography contains citations concerning chemiluminescence assays. The citations include sample system design, sample collection, measurement techniques, and sensitivity of the instrumentation. Applications in high altitude air pollution studies are emphasized. (Contains 250 citations and includes a subject term index and title list.)

Scintillometers measure amount of scintillations by emitting a beam of light over a horizontal path and expresses as the atmospheric turbulence structure parameter as the refractive index of air (Cn**2). Cn**2 represents the turbulent strength of the atmosphere and describes the ability of the atmos...

Clean Air Hamilton is the new name of the Hamilton-Wentworth Air Quality Initiative and its implementation committee, which began in 1995 as a collaborative, multi-sectoral effort to identify and examine important air quality issues and to implement strategies to reduce many of the harmful emissions that endanger human health. During the year 2000 Clean Air Hamilton focused on nine program areas. Strategies were initiated to (1) reduce single occupancy auto trips, (2) purchase low emission vehicles, (3) model transportation emissions, (4) reduce smog-causing emissions, (5) plant trees, (6) provide advice on air quality related land use and transportation issues for consideration in city-wide planning, (7) promote public awareness through social marketing, (8) study fugitive road dust, and (9) reduce transboundary air pollution. A number of indicators to measure progress in efforts to improve air quality have been developed; many of these indicators show significant improvements which, taken collectively, show a positive trend toward cleaner air. The report highlights major accomplishment of Clean Air Hamilton; reports trends in ambient air quality data; assesses human health impacts of air quality, and recommends strategies for further improvements. Among major improvements, inhalable particulate (PM10) levels have decreased by about 20 per cent since 1991; sulphur dioxide levels dropped by 40 per cent since 1989 at industrial sampling sites and 20 per cent at the downtown sampling site; the air pollution index has remained under the advisory level of 32 at all API stations in Hamilton since June 1996. Benzene levels in air decreased by over 50 per cent near the Dofasco plant compared to the five-year composite average from 1994-1998. Given these accomplishments, participants in Clean Air Hamilton believe that while there is much room for improvement, the efforts to date have been worthwhile and provide encouragement for the future. 14 figs., 4 appendices.

The use of a computed tomography (CT) scanner specifically designed for breast imaging has been proposed by several investigators. In this study, the radiation dose due to breast CT was evaluated using Monte Carlo techniques over a range of parameters pertinent to the cone-beam pendant geometry thought to be most appropriate. Monte Carlo dose computations were validated by comparison with physical measurements made on a prototype breast CT scanner under development in our laboratory. The Monte Carlo results were then used to study the influence of cone angle, the use of a beam flattening ("bow-tie") filter, glandular fraction, breast length and source-to-isocenter distance. These parameters were studied over a range of breast diameters from 10 to 18 cm, and for both monoenergetic (8-140 keV by 1 keV intervals) and polyenergetic x-ray beams (30-100 kVp by 5 kVp intervals. Half value layer at 80 kVp = 5.3 mm Al). A parameter referring to the normalized glandular dose in CT (DgN(CT)) was defined which is the ratio of the glandular dose in the breast to the air kerma at isocenter. There was no significant difference (p = 0.743) between physically measured and Monte Carlo derived results. Fan angle, source-to-isocenter distance, and breast length have relatively small influences on the radiation dose in breast CT. Glandular fraction (0% versus 100%) for 10 cm breasts at 80 kVp had approximately a 10% effect on DgN(CT), and a 20% effect was observed for an 18 cm breast diameter. The use of a bow-tie filter had the potential to reduce breast dose by approximately 40%. X-ray beam energy and breast diameter had significant influence on the DgN(CT) parameters, with higher DgN(CT) values for higher energy beams and smaller breast diameters. DgN(CT) values (mGy/mGy) at 80 kVp ranged from 0.95 for an 8 cm diam 50% glandular breast to 0.78 for an 18 cm 50% glandular breast. The results of this investigation should be useful for those interested computing the glandular breast dose for geometries relevant to dedicated breast CT. PMID:15000608

Ionizing radiation metrology is the base to achieve reliable dose measurements in ali areas; it is also part of the framework that is established to assure radiation protection procedures in order to avoid or minimize the harmful biological effect that may be caused by ionizing radiation. A well done metrology means the use of reliable instruments that comply with standard performance requirements worldwide accepted. Those instruments are expected to be calibrated by Metrology Laboratories under well defined conditions. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in Standard 61267 established the reference radiations for medical diagnostic x-ray equipment that are recommended to be used for calibrating dosimetric systems for diagnostic dosimetry. In this work, X-ray beam qualities were established in a Calibration Laboratory and their characteristics were analyzed through the measurement of beam parameters like inherent tube filtration, beam uniformity and field size, energy spectra and peak voltage for additional filtration with 94.425 por cent and 99.999 por cent purity filters. Also, the first half-value layer and the homogeneity coefficient were measured for the three RQR 2, RQR 6 and RQR 10 IEC beam qualities and they were analyzed according to the IEC standard. Air-kerma measurements were carried out with an ionization chamber that had its reliability confirmed through repetition and reproducibility reading tests. In 50 sets of measurements the maximum standard deviation found of 10 successive readings was 0.19 %; the maximum shift of the reading mean value at a fixed geometry condition was 0.80 % with an overall standard deviation of 0.23 %. Results showed that the use of different purity filters did not cause a relevant influence on the beam energy spectra. An ionization chamber was also calibrated against a standard dosimeter in ali implemented reference radiations and the relevant sources of uncertainties were estimated. Calibration could be done with an expanded uncertainty of 1.50% for a coverage factor of 2 at a 95.45 % confidence level, mainly due to the uncertainty of 0.58% caused by the positioning set-up of the ionization chamber. (author)

A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was developed for bread-baking process in a pilot-scale baking oven to find out the effect of hot air distribution and placement of bread on temperature and starch gelatinization index of bread. In this study, product (bread) simulation was carried out with different placements of bread. Simulation results were validated with experimental measurements of bread temperature. This study showed that nonuniform air flow pattern inside the oven cavity leads to uneven temperature distribution. The study with respect to placement of bread showed that baking of bread in upper trays required shorter baking time and gelatinization index compared to those in the bottom tray. The upper tray bread center reached 100 °C at 1200 s, whereas starch gelatinization completed within 900 s, which was the minimum baking index. Moreover, the heat penetration and starch gelatinization were higher along the sides of the bread as compared to the top and bottom portions of the bread. PMID:21535595

This paper addresses the effects of the deregulation of the Brazilian air transportation industry in terms of the concentration of the market. We will show some metrics that are commonly used to study the concentration of the industry. This paper uses the Herfindhal- Hirschman Index. This index tends to zero in the competitive scenario, with a large number of small firms, and to one in case of a monopolistic scenario. The paper analyses the dynamics of the concentration of the Brazilian domestic air transportation market, in order to evaluate the effects of deregulation. We conclude that the Brazilian market presents oligopoly characteristics and aspects in its current structure that maintain the market concentrated in spite of the Deregulation measures adopted by the aeronautical authority. Keywords: Herfindhal-Hirschman Index, concentration, Deregulation

Eleven patients with suspected adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and five control patients were studied using a computerized gamma imaging and analysis technique and /sup 99m/Tc-labeled human serum albumin. The heart and right lung were imaged, lung:heart ratio was plotted vs. time, and a linear regression was fitted to the data points displayed. The slope of this fit was termed the ''slope index.'' An index value of 2 standard deviations greater than the control mean was considered positive. Radiographs from the six positive studies revealed typical diffuse air-space disease. Radiographs from two of the five negative studies demonstrated air-space consolidation. Both of these patients had elevated pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, cardiomegaly, and clinical course consistent with cardiogenic pulmonary edema. These preliminary data demonstrated a good correlation between positive slope index and clinical ARDS.

In the present work, a model combination is developed in order to provide the public, in north-western Greece, with the next day air quality forecast. Generally, the development and deployment of a real-time numerical air quality prediction system is technically challenging while even more in complex terrain. The Air Pollution Model (TAPM) ( External Reference Not Shown ) is a hydrostatic prognostic mesoscale model. It has been calibrated for the area in recent studies and used in air quality assessments. In 2007, TAPM has started operating in a real-time operational mode for the prediction of next day?s weather forecast, particulate matter (PM10 with an aerodynamic diameter <10??m) daily average concentration and Air Pollution Indexes. The model setup is a link up between TAPM and SKIRON ...

The climate of a region is an environmental resource with important implications for things such as thermal comfort, health and productivity of the population. In this work, the bioclimatic comfort was evaluated for seven seasonally warm/hot cities of Mexico by means of the following current indexes: Discomfort Index, Enthalpy Index and Heat Strain Index. Also, the periods during which it is necessary to use air conditioning in the studied cities were calculated from estimated global radiation and hourly data of temperature and relative humidity which made it possible to establish them with high precision. Finally, the useful of the Heat Strain Index is shown. It is a simple index needing available meteorological data to compare bioclimatic conditions of similar sites. [Spanish] El clima regional tiene implicaciones en el confort, la salud y la productividad de la poblacion. En este articulo se presentan las evaluaciones bioclimaticas comparativas de siete ciudades calidas de Mexico. Se aplicaron los indices bioclimaticos de disconfort, entalpia y esfuerzo frente al calor. Se calcularon los periodos para los cuales es necesario el uso de aire acondicionado, a partir de estimaciones de radiacion solar global y de temperatura y humedad horarias medias mensuales. Finalmente se muestra la utilidad y calidad del Indice de esfuerzo frente al calor, el cual requiere solo de datos climatologicos comunes para poder comparar condiciones bioclimaticas de sitios similares.

This study explored the comet assay as a possible tool to assess genotoxicity in erythrocytes of Columba livia to detect genotoxic effects induced by exposure to urban air pollution. Fieldwork was conducted between June 2004 and June 2005 in the city of Milan, Italy, by sampling pigeons in different areas almost twice a week. Six air contaminants?CO, PM10, NO2, O3 (ozone), SO2, and C6H6?plus polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in fine particles, temperature, and ultraviolet index, were considered. Genotoxicity levels, expressed as %DNA migrated, tail moment, and damage index (DI), were always higher in wild pigeons than in pigeons living indoors (controls). Animals exposed to urban air showed significant differences from season to season, and the genotoxic parameters presented the high...

Canopy temperatures, obtained infrared thermometry, along with wet- and dry-bulb air temperatures and an estimate of net radiation were used in equations derived from energy balance considerations to calcuate a crop water stress index (CWSI). Theoretical limits were developed for the canopy-air temperature difference as related to the air vapor pressure deficit. The CWSI was shown to be equal to 1 - E/E sub p, the ratio of actual to potential evapotranspiration obtained from the Penman-Monteith equation. Four experimental plots, planted to wheat, received post-emergence irrigations at different times to create different degrees of water stress. Pertinent variables were measured between 1340 and 1400 each day (except some weekends). The CWSI, plotted as a function of time, closely paralleled a plot of the extractable soil water in the 0-to 1.1-m zone. Usefulness and limitations of the index are discussed.

We present a macroscopic calculation of coherent electro-magnetic radiation from air showers initiated by ultra-high energy cosmic rays, based on currents obtained from three-dimensional Monte Carlo simulations of air showers in a realistic geo-magnetic field. We discuss the importance of a correct treatment of the index of refraction in air, given by the law of Gladstone and Dale, which affects the pulses enormously for certain configurations, compared to a simplified treatment using a constant index. We predict in particular a geomagnetic Cherenkov radiation, which provides strong signals at high frequencies (GHz), for certain geometries together with "normal radiation" from the shower maximum, leading to a double peak structure in the frequency spectrum. We also provide some information about the numerical procedures referred to as EVA 1.0.

Personalized ventilation (PV) aims to provide clean air to the breathing zone of occupants. Its performance depends to a large extent on the supply air terminal device (ATD). Five different ATDs were developed, tested and compared. A typical office workplace consisting of a desk with mounted ATDs was simulated in a climate chamber. A breathing thermal manikin was used to simulate a human being. Experiments at room air temperatures of 26 and 20 deg.C and personalized air temperatures of 20 deg.C supplied from the ATDs were performed. The flow rate of personalized air was changed from less than 5 up to 23 l/s. Tracer gas was used to identify the amount of personalized air inhaled by the manikin as well as the amount of exhaled air re-inhaled. The heat loss from the body segments of the thermal manikin was measured and used to calculate the equivalent temperature for the whole body as well as segments of the body. An index, personal exposure effectiveness, was used to assess the performance of ATDs in regard to quality of the air inhaled by the manikin. The personal exposure effectiveness increased with the increase of the airflow rate from the ATD to a constant maximum value. A further increase of the airflow rate had no impact on the personal exposure effectiveness. Under both isothermal and non-isothermal conditions the highest personal exposure effectiveness of 0.6 was achieved by a vertical desk grill followed by an ATD designed as a movable panel. The ATDs tested performed differently in regard to the inhaled air temperature used as another air quality indicator, as well as in regard to the equivalent temperature. The results suggest that PV may decrease significantly the number of occupants dissatisfied with the air quality. However, an ATD that will ensure more efficient distribution and less mixing of the personalized air with the polluted room air needs to be developed.

Neutron and gamma ray energy spectra were measured using an NE-213 scintillator at depths of 7.2, 15.2, and 22.2 cm in a tissue-equivalent phantom which was uniformly irradiated on one face by deuterium-tritium (DT) neutrons. Coupled neutron-gamma ray multigroup discrete ordinates calculations were performed using semi-infinite slab geometry. These calculations were used to supplement the measured spectra below 1 MeV. Similar calculations were performed to study the perturbation in the phantom due to the detector. The measured and calculated spectra were used to determine the kerma distributions for neutrons and gamma rays at each location. The gamma radiation was determined to contribute more than 10% of the total dose at each depth. The calculated kerma also reveals that a knowledge of the gamma ray spectra below 1 MeV is desirable. PMID:6843515

Success for the use of neutron for radiation therapy and other applications in radiological physics depends on the understanding of the interaction of neutron with elements in the tissue. Study of the mechanisms of energy deposition by neutron interaction with matter is very important to improve the understanding of the neutron dosimetry. Cross section data are the basic inputs for many types of calculations in radiation physics. One important quantity in some radiological applications of neutron is the kerma (kinetic energy released in material.) Differential elastic and inelastic neutron scattering from some elements of biological interests are available at energies 18 -- 26 MeV. Optical Model Potentials based on these measured cross sections may be used to calculate various quantities of interest for the neutron dosimetry at higher energies where cross section data may not be available. Kerma values for elastic and inelastic scattering of neutron from ^16O are obtained from differential cross sections.

The authors review recent work at Los Alamos to evaluate neutron, proton, and photonuclear cross section up to 150 MeV (to 250 MeV for protons), based on experimental data and nuclear model calculations. These data are represented in the ENDF format and can be used in computer codes to simulate radiation transport. They permit calculations of absorbed dose in the body from therapy beams, and through use of kerma coefficients allow absorbed dose to be estimated for a given neutron energy distribution. For radiation protection, these data can be used to determine shielding requirements in accelerator environments, and to calculate neutron, proton, gamma-ray, and radionuclide production. Illustrative comparisons of the evaluated cross section and kerma coefficient data with measurements are given.

Simulation was applied to study the influence of source profile fluctuation and errors involved in particle measurement data regarding sources and receptors on the evaluation of source apportionment to particulate air pollutants. The apportionment of sources, such as automobiles, which do not have index elements with a specificity does not have a clear relationship with the source profile concentration, is greatly dependent on other sources, and is remarkably unreliable. In contrast, the apportionment of sources, such as petroleum fuel, which have index elements with a high specificity is in inverse proportion to the index element concentration. The results of apportionment analysis on one sample are as follows: When the tolerance of inference errors is +-25%, the maximums of errors tolerable in particle concentration measurement and of discharge fluctuation indexes are approximately 15% and 1.3, respectively. (9 figs, 3 tabs, 20 refs)

A portable neutron spectrometer/kerma-rate meter for the measurement of the fast neutron component of mixed n- gamma fields in the 1 to 15 MeV neutron energy range is described. The system includes an organic scintillation detector, pulse shape discrimination circuitry, a 1.4 mu sec multichannel analyzer, an 8-bit microcomputer, and appropriate displays. The instrument is capable of both gathering and processing recoil-proton pulse height data in the field.

A refined dose assessment method has been used now in the THOR BNCT facility, which takes into account more delicate corrections, carefully handled calibration factors, and the spectrum- and kerma-weighted k(t) value. The refined method solved the previous problem of negative derived neutron dose in phantom at deeper positions. With the improved dose assessment, the calculated and measured gamma-ray dose rates match perfectly in a 15×15×15 cm(3) PMMA phantom. PMID:21377883

The mass attenuation coefficients for some vitamins (retinol, beta-carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, niacinamide, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folic acid, cyanocobalamin, ascorbic acid, cholecalciferol, alpha-tocopherol, ketamine, hesperidin) were determined experimentally and theoretically at 356.61, 661.66, 1250 and 1408.01keV photon energies by using a NaI(Tl) scintillation detector. Also, the mass energy absorption coefficients and kerma have been calculated. The calculated values were compared with the semi-empirical values for vitamins.

The UNO Aviation Institute Monograph Series began in 1994 as a key component of the education outreach and information transfer missions of the Aviation Institute and the NASA Nebraska Space Grant & EPSCoR Programs. The series is an outlet for aviation materials to be indexed and disseminated through an efficient medium. Publications are welcome in all aspects of aviation. Publication formats may include, but are not limited to, conference proceedings, bibliographies, research reports, manuals, technical reports, and other documents that should be archived and indexed for future reference by the aviation and world wide communities. The Conference proceedings of the 2003 Air Transport Research Society (ATRS) world conference, volume 5 is presented. The topics include: 1) The Temporal Configuration of Airline Networks in Europe; 2) Determination and Applications of Environmental Costs at Different Sized Airports-Aircraft Noise and Engine Emissions; 3) Cost Effective Measures to Reduce CO2 Emissions in the Air Freight Sector; 4) An Assessment of the Sustainability of Air Transport System: Quantification of Indicators; 5) Regulation, Competition and Network Evolution in Aviation; 6) Regulation in the Air: Price and Frequency Cap; 7) Industry Consolidation and Future Airline Network Structures in Europe; 8) Application of Core Theory to the U.S. Airline Industry; 9) Air Freight Transshipment Route Choice Analysis; 10) A Fuzzy Approach of the Competition on Air Transport Market; and 11) Developing Passenger Demand Models for International Aviation from/to Egypt: A Case Study of Cairo Airport and Egyptair.

A method for controlling the amount of a fuel mixture, including a methanol and a gasoline fuel of different volumetric energy content, to be supplied to an internal combustion engine is described. The method controls the amount of a fuel mixture during open and closed loop; engine control operation including the steps of: sensing a parameter related to the percentage of the methanol fuel in the fuel mixture; determining the percentage of the methanol fuel in the fuel mixture; determining a first stoichiometric air fuel ratio for the methanol fuel as a function of the energy content of the methanol fuel; determining a second stoichiometric air fuel ratio for the gasoline fuel as a function of the energy content of the gasoline fuel; determining a third stoichiometric air fuel ratio for the fuel mixture as a function of the first stoichiometric air fuel ratio for the methanol fuel and the second stoichiometric air fuel ratio for the gasoline fuel as a function of the energy content of the fuel mixture; generating an output signal for controlling air fuel ratio as a function of the third stoichiometric air fuel ratio; sensing a parameter related to the percentage of the methanol fuel in the fuel mixture including measuring the index of refraction of the fuel mixture by an optical sensor positioned in the fuel mixture and determining the frequency of an electrical output signal from the optical sensor; determining a third desired air fuel ratio including the step of interpolating between the first and second desired air fuel ratios for the methanol and gasoline fuels to determine the third desired air fuel ratio for the fuel mixture; and wherein the step of interpolating includes maintaining the desired third ratio of the air to the fuel mixture in accordance with the formula: desired third air fuel ratio = (6.4) (PM) + (14.64) (1-PM) wherein PM = (percentage of methanol)/100.

The optical properties of two-dimensional (2D) photonic crystal (PhC) slabs based on self-assembled monolayer of dielectric microspheres are studied. The in-plane transmission spectra of 2D array of dielectric spheres with triangular lattice are investigated using the finite-difference-time-domain (FDTD) method. The structures studied are monolayer of dielectric spheres infiltrated with air ('opals') and air spheres infiltrated with dielectric material ('inverse opals'), with glass substrate sustaining the monolayer of spheres. The transmission spectra are calculated for different values of refractive index contrasts between the spheres and the infiltrated material and for different values of filling fractions (compactness of the spheres). As the refractive index is varied, compact spheres are assumed; and as the filling fraction is varied, the refractive index of the dielectric spheres or the dielectric matrix is fixed to be 2.5. For compact opal structure on glass substrate, a narrow photonic band gap (PBG) is observed in the transmission spectra for dielectric spheres with refractive index higher than around 1.9. When the refractive index is fixed at 2.5, the PBG is observed for more compact spherical arrangement and disappears for more separated spheres. While for inverse opal structure on glass substrate, using non-compact spheres enlarges the width of PBG which is not observed for compact spherical arrangement. The application of the study is to realize organic PhC microcavity laser.

This study aims to investigate possible sources of air pollutants and the spatial patterns within the eight selected Malaysian air monitoring stations based on a two-year database (2008-2009). The multivariate analysis was applied on the dataset. It incorporated Hierarchical Agglomerative Cluster Analysis (HACA) to access the spatial patterns, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to determine the major sources of the air pollution and Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) to assess the percentage contribution of each air pollutant. The HACA results grouped the eight monitoring stations into three different clusters, based on the characteristics of the air pollutants and meteorological parameters. The PCA analysis showed that the major sources of air pollution were emissions from motor vehicles, aircraft, industries and areas of high population density. The MLR analysis demonstrated that the main pollutant contributing to variability in the Air Pollutant Index (API) at all stations was particulate matter with a diameter of less than 10 ?m (PM10). Further MLR analysis showed that the main air pollutant influencing the high concentration of PM10 was carbon monoxide (CO). This was due to combustion processes, particularly originating from motor vehicles. Meteorological factors such as ambient temperature, wind speed and humidity were also noted to influence the concentration of PM10.

In this work, we investigate the effect of air convection onlaser-beam pointing noise essential for the long trace profiler (LTP). Wedescribe this pointing error with noise power density (NPD) frequencydistributions. It is shown that the NPD spectra due to air convectionhave a very characteristic form. In the range of frequencies from ~;0.05Hz to ~;0.5 Hz, the spectra can be modeled with an inverse-power-lawfunction. Depending on the intensity of air convection that is controlledwith a resistive heater of 100 to 150 mW along a one-meter-long opticalpath, the power index lies between 2 and 3 at an overall rms noise of~;0.5 to 1 microradian. The efficiency of suppression of the convectionnoise by blowing air across the beam optical path is also discussed.Air-blowing leads to a white-noise-like spectrum. Air blowing was appliedto the reference channel of an LTP allowing demonstration of thecontribution of air convection noise to the LTP reference beam. Theability to change (with the blowing technique presented) the spectralcharacteristics of the beam pointing noise due to air convection allowsone to investigate the contribution of the convection effect, and thusmake corrections to the power spectral density spectra measured with theLTP.

Urbanization and industrialization lead to increases in automobile vehicular activities causing significant air pollution problems, which have implications for public health. In response to this issue, an air pollution study was undertaken to evaluate the impacts of foundry units on the urban environment in Coimbatore, India. Approximately 17 foundry units were randomly selected and studied for its air pollutants such as gaseous and suspended particulate matter using Central Pollution Control Board standard estimation methods. Gaseous index pollutants were monitored over a 24-hour period. The study concluded that even though air pollutants emitted from the foundries are within allowable limits, the industrial location and increase in number of units in Coimbatore may increase the total volume of pollution to the environment. The paper recommends separating industrial sector zones. 4 refs., 3 tabs.

A generalized methodology is developed for thermal testing of various solar dryer designs operated for natural and forced air flow conditions. The steady state mathematical model based on heat balance concept of solar dryer without load is applied to identify the dimensionless parameter called no-load performance index (NLPI). Laboratory models of direct (cabinet), indirect and mixed mode solar dryer are designed and constructed to perform steady state thermal tests for natural and forced air circulation. The dryers with no-load are operated with air passage between absorber plate and glass cover for the range of 300-800W/m2 and 0.009-0.026kg/s of absorbed thermal energy and air mass flow rate respectively under indoor simulation conditions. The present study reveals that the forced convec...

A sub-10?m long microfiber Bragg grating was nanostructured into a ~1?m-diameter optical microfiber by focused ion beam (FIB) technology. The periodic structures were carved into the microfiber and the large refractive index contrast between glass and air allowed for the formation of strong gratings with only 20 periods. 3D simulation showed a good agreement with the experiment demonstration. This compact device can find applications in a variety of fields ranging from temperature and refractive index sensing to optical communications.

Lung protective ventilation in Acute Lung Injury (ALI) focuses on using low tidal volumes and adequate levels of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP). Identifying optimal pressure is difficult because pressure-volume (PV) relations differ regionally. Precise analysis demands local measurements of pressures and related alveolar morphologies. In a porcine model of surfactant depletion (n=24), we combined measuring static pressures with endoscopic microscopy and electrical impedance tomography (EIT) to examine regional PV loops and morphologic heterogeneities between healthy (control group; CON) and ALI lungs ventilated with low (LVT) or high tidal volumes (HVT). Quantification included indices for microscopy (Volume Air Index (VAI), Heterogeneity and Circularity Index), EIT analysis and c...

Patient doses from computed tomography (CT) examinations are usually expressed in terms of dose index, organ doses, and effective dose. The CT dose index (CTDI) can be measured free-in-air or in a CT dosimetry phantom. Organ doses can be measured directly in anthropomorphic Rando phantoms using thermoluminescent detectors. Organ doses can also be calculated by the Monte Carlo method utilizing measured CTDI values. In this work, organ doses were assessed for three main CT examinations: head, chest, and abdomen, using the different mentioned methods. Results of directly measured doses were compared with calculated doses for different organs in the study, and also compared with published international studies.

Abstract in english This research was undertaken in Registro, SP, from January 1979 to December 1982, to verify the relationship between the capture (in kilo-grams) of Anchoviella lepidentostole (Fowler, 1911) and fluviometric and climatic parameters. The following results were obtained, utilizing the Pearson index of linear correlation: a) for capture and fluviometric values, r = -0.84; b) for capture and solar radiation, r = 0.63; c) for capture andpluviometric index, r = -0.83; d) for capture and mean air temperature, r = 0.30.

With advanced air handling systems on modern aircraft and the high level of measles immunity in many countries, measles infection in air travelers may be considered a low-risk event. However, introduction of measles into countries where transmission has been controlled or eliminated can have substantial consequences both for the use of public health resources and for those still susceptible. In an effort to balance the relatively low likelihood of disease transmission among largely immune travelers and the risk to the public health of the occurrence of secondary cases resulting from importations, criteria in the United States for contact investigations for measles exposures consider contacts to be those passengers who are seated within 2 rows of the index case. However, recent work has shown that cabin air flow may not be as reliable a barrier to the spread of measles virus as previously believed. Along with these new studies, several reports have described measles developing after travel in passengers seated some distance from the index case. To understand better the potential for measles virus to spread on an airplane, reports of apparent secondary cases occurring in co-travelers of passengers with infectious cases of measles were reviewed. Medline™ was searched for articles in all languages from 1946 to week 1 of March 2012, using the search terms "measles [human] or rubeola" and ("aircraft" or "airplane" or "aeroplane" or "aviation" or "travel" or "traveler" or "traveller"); 45 citations were returned. Embase™ was searched from 1988 to week 11 2012, using the same search strategy; 95 citations were returned. Papers were included in this review if they reported secondary cases of measles occurring in persons traveling on an airplane on which a person or persons with measles also flew, and which included the seating location of both the index case(s) and the secondary case(s) on the plane. Nine reports, including 13 index cases and 23 apparent secondary cases on 10 flights, were identified in which transmission on board the aircraft appeared likely and which included seating information for both the index (primary) and secondary cases. Separation between index and secondary cases ranged from adjacent seats to 17 rows, with a median of 6 rows. Three flights had more than one index case aboard. Based on previously published data, it is not possible to say how unusual cases of measles transmission among air travelers beyond the usual zone of contact investigation (the row the index case sat in and 2 rows ahead of or behind that row) may be. The fact that several flights had more than one infectious case aboard and that all but two index cases were in the prodromal phase may be of importance in understanding the wider spread described in several of the reviewed reports. Although the pattern of cabin air flow typical of modern commercial aircraft has been considered highly effective in limiting the airborne spread of microorganisms, concerns have been raised about relying on the operation of these systems to determine exposure risk, as turbulence in the cabin air stream is generated when passengers and crew are aboard, allowing the transmission of infectious agents over many rows. Additionally, the characteristics of some index cases may reflect a greater likelihood of disease transmission. Investigators should continue to examine carefully both aircraft and index-case factors that may influence disease transmission and could serve as indicators on a case-by-case basis to include a broader group of travelers in a contact investigation. PMID:23127863

The purpose of this study was to compare the air handling capability of five currently used membrane oxygenators: the Avecor Affinity, the Bentley SpiralGold, the Medtronic Maxima Plus, the Sarns Turbo and the Sorin Monolyth M. A circuit was constructed to include a hardshell venous reservoir and roller pump. Pressure monitoring sites and ultrasonic microbubble detection probes were located proximal and distal to the oxygenator. An air injection/infusion site was provided proximal to the roller pump inlet. Each circuit was primed with fresh anticoagulated bovine blood, adjusted to a haematocrit of 25% and maintained at 38 +/- 1 degree C. Three different bolus amounts of air (10, 20 and 40 cm3) were injected at three blood flow rates (3, 4.5 and 6 l/min). A 1-min infusion of air delivered at 1 ml/s was also administered at three blood flow rates (3, 4.5 and 6 l/min). The hardshell reservoir was also completely emptied at each flow rate to simulate a massive air infusion. At any given blood flow, outlet microbubble counts were usually higher with greater bolus amounts of air. When indexed to the inlet bubble counts, the following average percent microbubbles were released from the outlet: Turbo 25%, Affinity 7%, Monolyth 5%, Maxima 3% and SpiralGold 1%. With a constant air infusion of 1 ml/s, greater outlet microbubble counts were associated with higher blood flow rates. Again, when indexed to the inlet bubble counts, the following average percent microbubbles were released from the outlet: Turbo 44%, Affinity 25%, Maxima 19%, Monolyth 16% and SpiralGold 0%. All oxygenators deprimed when the hardshell reservoir was emptied and all shed microbubbles into the outlet blood except the SpiralGold. The results of this study indicate that air handling is not a simple function of blood flow pattern (i.e. top to bottom versus bottom to top), but also includes dynamics associated with oxygenator design, fibre arrangement and flow resistance. PMID:9160365

Ammonium polyphosphate (APP) form II was prepared by heating a mixture of ammonium orthophosphate and urea at 280 to 300°C under wet ammonia which was made by passing air through 3 to 5% ammonia water. Simple dry process of the preparation of APP form V was studied and APP form V was prepared by heating a mixture of ammonium orthophosphate and urea at 330 to 340°C under wet ammonia which was made by passing air through 15 to 29% aqueous ammonia. These APPs showed an oxygen index higher than 26 when they were added to synthetic organic polymers.   

For compressed air pressures higher than 2-2.5 MPa, it is important that the pressure dependence of the thermodynamic properties of air be taken into account. Here, formulas are presented for calculating the density, enthalpy, entropy, isobaric and isochoric specific heats, isentropy index, and sound velocity with allowance for pressure. The thermodynamic parameters calculated on the basis of these formulas are the same as the values calculated by the exact method for pressures up to 30 MPa and agree with the exact results to within 1 percent at pressures up to 100 MPa. 7 refs.

Preparation of ammonium polyphosphate form II was made by heating a mixture of ammonium orthophosphate and urea at 280 to 300°C under wet ammonia which was prepared by passing air through 3 to 5% ammonia water. Simple dry process of the preparation of ammonium polyphosphate form V was studied and the ammonium polyphosphate was prepared by heating a mixture of ammonium orthophosphate and urea at 330 to 340°C under wet ammonia which was made by passing air through 15 to 29% aqueous ammonia. The ammonium polyphosphates had flame retardation effect to organic polymer materials and the materials containing the ammonium polyphosphates showed an oxygen index higher than 20.   

The large amount of data from air-coupled impact-echo tests from bridge decks must be manipulated and presented such that infrastructure engineers can effectively visualize the condition of the structure. To address this problem, we present the data in the form of "4-dimensional" images, which indicate the location of concrete delamination defects using air-coupled impact-echo data. The basis of the 4-D plot is introduced, and the effects of image parameter variation, such as frequency range and transparency index, are studied and experimentally confirmed.

Abstract: A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was developed for bread baking process in a pilot scale baking oven to find out the effect of hot air distribution and placement of bread on temperature and starch gelatinization index of bread. In this study, product (bread) simulation was carried out with different placements of bread. Simulation results were validated with experimental measurements of bread temperature. This study showed that nonuniform air flow pattern inside the oven cavity leads to uneven temperature distribution. The study with respect to placement of bread showed that baking of bread in upper trays required shorter baking time and gelatinization index compared to those in the bottom tray. The upper tray bread center reached 100 C at 1200 s, whereas starch gelatin...

Bench-scale dissolved air flotation (DAF) of Tagus River surface water (Valadas, Portugal) was investigated as pre-treatment for spiral-wound module nanofiltration (SWNF). Before the DAF, a coagulation/flocculation of the surface water was performed using aluminium sulphate, ferric chloride and chitosan coagulants and several commercial coagulant aids. The coagulation/flocculation experiments were carried with 2 L of surface water in a jar-test equipment at room temperature. The DAF performance to remove colloidal matter and suspended solids was evaluated through the measurement of the silt density index (SDI) and the modified fouling index (MFI) of the treated water. The air saturation pressure was varied between 300 and 600 kPa and the recycle ratio between 5 and 50%. The DAF without coa...